Resources

Seafood Safety – National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine Report, 1991.

This comprehensive report summarizes seafood safety issues related to microbial risks, natural toxins and chemical contaminants in both commercial and recreationally caught seafood. The report was produced by a multidisciplinary committee of 13 scientists convened under the auspices of the Academy’s Food and Nutrition Board. The committee consisted of experts in the fields of public health, marine pathology, marine toxicology, food science and technology, food microbiology, biostatistics, seafood safety policy and regulations, epidemiology, risk assessment, industry structure, and public interest. The committee was asked to evaluate the health effects of marine and freshwater fishery products (fresh or frozen) available to the consumer from commercial and recreational sources, and to identify options for improvement of the current system of seafood surveillance and control. To view this report click here. 

U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Food borne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (Bad Bug Book)

This FDA Handbook provides information on the illnesses caused by fish and shellfish toxins including Scombrotoxin, Ciguatera, Tetrodotoxin (puffer toxin), and the Shellfish Toxins that cause Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), Amnesiac Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) and Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP). Included is information on each of these toxins, food vehicles, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, and high risk groups. To see this resource click here. 

October 18, 2006, Fish Intake, Contaminants, and Human Health: Evaluating the risks and the benefits, Clinical Review, Journal of the American Medical Association, 296: 1885-1899

Abstract (excerpts)

Context: Fish (finfish or shellfish) may have health benefits and also contain contaminants, resulting in confusion over the role of fish consumption in a healthy diet.

Evidence Acquisition: We searched MEDLINE, governmental reports, and meta-analyses, supplemented by hand reviews of references and direct investigator contacts, to identify reports published through April 2006 evaluating (1) intake of fish or fish oil and cardiovascular risk, (2) effects of methylmercury and fish oil on early neurodevelopment, (3) risks of methylmercury for cardiovascular and neurologic outcomes in adults, and (4) health risks of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish.

Evidence Synthesis: Levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish are low, and potential carcinogenic and other effects are outweighed by potential benefits of fish intake and should have little impact on choices or consumption of seafood (women of childbearing age should consult regional advisories for locally caught freshwater fish).

Conclusions: For major health outcomes among adults, based on both the strength of the evidence and the potential magnitudes of effect, the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks.
For full abstract click here.

This section contains information and links to key scientific journal articles and government and health organization reports on risks and benefits of seafood consumption. These resources are designed to give an in-depth review of the subject.

Reviews of Risks-Benefits of Seafood Consumption

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization Expert Consultations: Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption. 2010. The purpose of the FAO/WHO Expert Consultation was to provide a framework for assessing the net health benefits or risks of fish consumption that would assist governments to prepare advice for their own populations. This is the Executive Summary of the report and draws the general conclusion that benefits from fish consumption outweigh the risks for all populations. Click here to download.

October 18, 2006, Fish Intake, Contaminants, and Human Health: Evaluating the risks and the benefits, Clinical Review, Journal of the American Medical Association, 296: 1885-1899

Abstract (excerpts)

Context Fish (finfish or shellfish) may have health benefits and also contain contaminants, resulting in confusion over the role of fish consumption in a healthy diet.

Evidence Acquisition  We searched MEDLINE, governmental reports, and meta-analyses, supplemented by hand reviews of references and direct investigator contacts, to identify reports published through April 2006 evaluating (1) intake of fish or fish oil and cardiovascular risk, (2) effects of methylmercury and fish oil on early neurodevelopment, (3) risks of methylmercury for cardiovascular and neurologic outcomes in adults, and (4) health risks of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish.

Evidence Synthesis  Levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish are low, and potential carcinogenic and other effects are outweighed by potential benefits of fish intake and should have little impact on choices or consumption of seafood (women of childbearing age should consult regional advisories for locally caught freshwater fish).

Conclusions  For major health outcomes among adults, based on both the strength of the evidence and the potential magnitudes of effect, the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks.

Click for full abstract

Code of Federal Regulations– 21 CFR 109.30– Tolerances for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s) 

Daniels JL, Longnecker MP, Klebanoff MA, Gray KA, Brock JW, Zhou H, Chen Z & Needham LL. 2003. Prenatal exposure to low-level polychlorinated biphenyls in relation to mental and motor development at 8 months. Am. J. Epidemiol. 157:485-492.

Grandjean P, Weihe P, Burse VW, Needham LL, Storr-Hansen E, Heinzow B, Debes F, Murata K, Simonsen H, Ellefsen P, Budtz-Jørgensen E, Keiding N & White RF. 2001. Neurobehavioral deficits associated with PCB in 7-year-old children prenatally exposed to seafood neurotoxicants. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 23:305-317.

Effects of prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption on neurodevelopment: outcomes at 66 months of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study. 1998. Davidson et al. Journal of American Medical Association, 280 (8): 701-7.

A total of 711 children were studied over 66 months for cognitive development in The Republic of Seychelles, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean where 85% of the population consumes ocean fish daily. No adverse outcomes at 66 months were associated with either prenatal or postnatal MeHg exposure. In the population studied, consumption of a diet high in ocean fish appears to pose no threat to developmental outcomes through 66 months of age.Click here to see this article.

Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. 1997. Granjean et al. Neurotoxicology Tetratology 19 (6): 417-28

A total of 917 children were studied in the Faroe Islands and underwent detailed neurobehavioral examination at seven years of age. Clinical examination and neurophysiological testing did not reveal any clear-cut mercury-related abnormalities. However, mercury-related neuropsychological dysfunctions were found in the domains of language, attention, and memory, and to a lesser extent in visuospatial and motor functions. Click here to see this article.

Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. 2006. Mozafarian, D. and Rimm, E. Journal of American Medical Association. 296 (15): 1885-99.

Authors undertook a major review of seafood consumption studies and found that even modest consumption of fish reduced the coronary risks by 36%. For major health outcomes among adults, based on both the strength of the evidence and the potential magnitudes of effect, the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks. Click here to see this article.

Decline in Fish Consumption Among Pregnant Women After a National Mercury Advisory. 2003. Emily Oken, MD, Ken P. Kleinman, ScD, Wendy E. Berland, MPH, Steven R. Simon, MD, MPH, Janet W. Rich-Edwards, ScD, and Matthew W. Gillman, MD, SM. Obstet Gynecol. 102(2): 346–351.

Authors observed a diminished consumption of dark meat fish, canned tuna, and white meat fish after the national mercury advisory. These decreases resulted in a reduction in total fish consumption of approximately 1.4 servings per month after dissemination of federal recommendations. Because these fish may confer nutritional benefits to mother and infant, public health implications of these changes remain unclear. Click here to see this article.

Epidemiology of Seafood–Associated Infections in the U.S.

Clinical Microbiology Reviews, April 2010, 399–411. Iwamoto, M., Ayers, T., Mahon, B.E. and D. Swerdlow. This peer reviewed journal article authored by scientists from the Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch of the CDC summarizes and analyzes the epidemiology of seafood associated illnesses in the U.S. from 1973 to 2006. Included is information on bacterial and viral pathogens and parasites associated with seafood. To see the abstract for this publication click here.

Outbreak Surveillance Data: Reported Foodborne Disease Outbreaks and Illnesses by Etiology and Food Commodities, United States – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

This Website contains the annual summaries of US foodborne disease outbreaks and illnesses by etiology and food commodities. The latest report is for 2007 (posted August 2010). Summaries from previous years are also available. A database tool is available to search for specific combinations for year, state, location where illness occurred and etiology. To visit this site click here.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) –Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Weekly publication from CDC with reports on various diseases and illnesses including foodborne illness. Website includes weekly reports, surveillance summaries, supplements and recommendations from CDC and other health organizations. To view the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) click here.

Infections related to the ingestion of seafood Part I: Viral and bacterial infections.

The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2004 Apr;4(4):201–12. Butt AA, Aldridge KE, Sanders CV. Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, the VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, and the Center for Health Equity Research and Promotion, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA. butta@msx.dept–med.pitt.edu The first part of this two–part review summarizes the general incidence of seafood–related infections and discusses the common viral and bacterial causes of these infections. For each agent, the microbiology, epidemiology, mode of transmission, and treatment are discussed. To view the summary of this article click here.

Assessment and Management of Seafood Safety and Quality by H. H. Huss, L. Ababouch and L. Gram, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 444. Rome. 2003.

This paper compiles the state of knowledge on fish safety and quality with the view to provide a succinct yet comprehensive resource book to risk and fish quality managers. After an introduction about world fish production and consumption and the developments in safety and quality systems, it provides a detailed review of the hazards causing public health concerns in fish and fish products. It devotes several Chapters to risk mitigation and management tools, with a detailed description of the requirements for the implementation of Good Hygienic and Manufacturing Practices (GHP/GMP), of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and of the monitoring programs to control biotoxins, pathogenic bacteria and viruses and chemical pollutants. Chapters on the use of microbiological criteria, the use of the HACCP approach to target quality aspects other than safety matters, predictive microbiology, traceability and examples of food safety objectives complete the document.
To view this resource click here.

Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guidance – Food and Drug Administration.

The primary purpose of this guidance is to assist processors of fish and fishery products in the development of their HACCP plans. Processors of fish and fishery products will find information in this guidance that will help them identify hazards that are associated with their products, and help them formulate control strategies.

Another purpose of this guidance is to help consumers and the public generally to understand commercial seafood safety in terms of hazards and their controls. This guidance does not specifically address safe handling practices by consumers or by retail establishments, although many of the concepts contained in this guidance are applicable to both. This guidance is also intended to serve as a tool to be used by federal and State regulatory officials in the evaluation of HACCP plans for fish and fishery products. describes the potential hazard of pathogens and methods of its control in commercially processed seafood. To view this guidance document click here. 

Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (The Bad Bug Book) – Food and Drug Administration.

This handbook provides basic facts regarding foodborne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins. It brings together in one place information from the Food & Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, the USDA Food Safety Inspection Service, and the National Institutes of Health. To view this handbook click here.

FoodNet Surveillance – Pathogens and Conditions – Centers for Disease Control.

This Website provides general information, technical information and a link to the Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch of CDC where published information can be retrieved on foodborne illness and important pathogens including: Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria, Vibrio and Yersinia. To visit this CDC Website click here.

Seafood Safety – National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine Report, 1991.

This comprehensive report summarizes seafood safety issues related to microbial risks, natural toxins and chemical contaminants in both commercial and recreationally caught seafood. The report was produced by a multidisciplinary committee of 13 scientists convened under the auspices of the Academy’s Food and Nutrition Board. The committee consisted of experts in the fields of public health, marine pathology, marine toxicology, food science and technology, food microbiology, biostatistics, seafood safety policy and regulations, epidemiology, risk assessment, industry structure, and public interest. The committee was asked to evaluate the health effects of marine and freshwater fishery products (fresh or frozen) available to the consumer from commercial and recreational sources, and to identify options for improvement of the current system of seafood surveillance and control. View this here..

Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks (Chapter 4: Health Risks Associated with Seafood Consumption), Eds. M. C. Nesheim and A. l. Yaktine (Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, 2007), “Seafoodborne parasitic infections are not common in the United States.” Thousands of parasites exist worldwide, but only about 100 species are known to infect people through consumption of contaminated food or water. There are two types of parasites that can infect people through food or water: parasitic worms and protozoa. Parasitic worms include roundworms (nematodes), tapeworms (cestodes) and flukes (trematodes). These worms vary in size from barely visible to several feet in length. Protozoa are single-cell animals, and cannot be seen without a microscope.

CDC: A-Z Index of Parasitic Diseases

CDC: National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Brone and Enteric Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases, DPDx, Laboratory Identification of Parasites of Public Health Concern. DPDx is a web site developed and maintained by CDC’s Division of Parasitic Diseases with the goal to strengthening diagnosis of parasitic diseases globally. The web site includes description of parasites and parasitic diseases, image library, diagnostic procedures, and diagnostic assistance. Click here for link.

The US Food and Drug Administration’s “BAM” (Bacteriological Analytical Manual) has a chapter on Parasitic Animals in Foods which discusses techniques for examining foods for the presence of parasites. An in-depth discussion of the candling method with finfish and molluscs is described. Click here for link.

The US Food and Drug Administration’s “Bad Bug Book” (Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook) includes basic facts on foodborne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins. The material is collected from the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, the USDA Food Safety Inspection Service, and the National Institutes of Health.

The chapter on Potential Hazards in Cold-Smoked Fish: Parasites in the US Food and Drug Administration scientific publication on “Safe Practices for Food Processes” discusses the presence of parasites in raw, frozen and smoked fish, and the effects of processing steps (salting, cold-smoking, freezing, and irridation) used in controlling parasites. Click here for link.

“Fish Parasites and Human Health, Epidemiology of Human Helminthic Infections” includes the life cycles of common parasites in freshwater and marine fishes, transmission, and prevention. Click here for link.

National Shellfish Sanitation Program: Guide for the Control of Molluscan Shellfish 2007, Section III. Public Health Reasons and Explanations.

This section of the latest version of the NSSP Molluscan Shellfish Control Manual provides a public health explanation and rationale for each of the required components of this national food safety control program. A description and rationale for requirements of state shellfish control authorities, bacteriological standards for monitoring water quality and classifying harvest waters, requirements for dealers and processors, and for depuration are included. To view this section and/or the entire 2007 NSSP Control Manual click here.

SafeOysters.org – Internet Resources and Reference for healthcare Providers on Oysters and Vibrio vulnificus.

This Website developed by seafood specialists at the Universities of Georgia and California-Davis contains a comprehensive list of Internet resources and published journal references on oysters with an emphasis on the pathogen Vibrio vulnificus. Internet resources include those available from the American Medical Association, Centers for Disease Control, Food and Drug Administration, and the Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference. References focus on public health, mode of infection, high risk individuals, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. To view this Internet resource click here.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Food borne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (Bad Bug Book)

This FDA Handbook provides information on the illnesses caused by bacterial and viral agents that could be associated with raw molluscan shellfish includingVibrio cholera, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus, Salmonella, E. coli, Shigella, and enteric viruses like Hepatitis A and the Norwalk virus group. Included is information on each of these organisms, food vehicles, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, and high risk groups. To see this resource click here. 

Microbial Contamination of Shellfish: Prevalence, Risk to Human Health, and Control Strategies, R. J. Wittman and G. J. Flick. Annual Review of Public Health, 1995, 16:123-40.

Abstract: There has been significant concern in recent times about the safety of molluscan shellfish for human consumption. Despite extensive efforts to assure a safe supply of molluscan shellfish, the number of cases of disease and death are still great enough to cause concern among the public. The number of cases of illness and death associated with the ingestion of shellfish falls in the lower end of the range of other similar microbial pathogen-related food borne disease. Disease and deaths due to viruses and naturally occurring bacteria are now of greatest concern because they are the most often cited causative agents. The greatest risk of disease or death due to shellfish consumption is among the population with underlying health conditions who choose to consume raw shellfish. Control strategies to limit shellfish-borne disease should focus upon disease and death caused by viruses and naturally occurring bacteria among at-risk populations. To view this article click here.

U.S. Centers for Disease Control – Preliminary FoodNet Data on the Incidence of Infection with Pathogens Transmitted Commonly Through Food – 10 States, 2009, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 59(14), April 16, 2010.

The Food borne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) of CDC’s Emerging Infections Program conducts active, population-based surveillance in 10 U.S. states for all laboratory-confirmed infections with select enteric pathogens transmitted commonly through food (1). This report describes preliminary surveillance data for 2009 and trends in incidence since 1996. To view this report click here.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Food borne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (Bad Bug Book – Listeria monocytogenes)

This FDA Handbook provides information on the illness caused by L. monocytogenes, listeriosis. Included is information on the organism, food vehicles, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, and high risk groups. To see this resource click here.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration and USDA/Food Safety and Inspection Service – Quantitative Assessment of Relative Risk to Public Health from Food borne Listeria monocytogenes Among Selected Categories of Ready-to-Eat Foods, September 2003.

The United States Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (DHHS/FDA/CFSAN) conducted this risk assessment in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA/FSIS) and in consultation with the DHHS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The purpose of the assessment is to examine systematically the available scientific data and information and to estimate the relative risks of serious illness and death associated with consumption of different types of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods that may be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes. To see a copy of the full report click here.

These resources are for consumers, patients, and health professionals who are interested in reviewing the results of studies published in scientific or medical journals or by government agencies or health organizations. They are presented at this site in the format of abstracts or other summaries of scientific papers or government reports with a link to the original source.

NACMCF. 2008. Response to the questions posed by the Food and Drug Administration and the National Marine Fisheries Service Regarding Determination of Cooking Parameters for Safe Seafood for Consumers. Journal of Food Protection, 2008, 71(6):1287-1308.

While consumers are advised to cook seafood to an internal temperature of 145°F for 15 seconds or until flaky, opaque and no longer translucent, there are questions regarding this recommendation. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) was asked to address many questions related to the safe handling of seafood including cooking requirements and internal temperatures, impact of different preparation methods, and pathogens of concern. While the committee found that seafood safety was enhanced with current recommendations for handling, cooking, serving and storing, the conclusions regarding many of the cooking parameters that have been recommended over the years were determined to have little scientific basis.

Some conclusions in the NACMCF report were:

• Cooking methods for seafood products differ and often not based on scientific data.
• There are no easy, practical measurements or indicators for consumers to objectively determine sufficient cooking to ensure safety
• Cookbook recommendations regarding cooking times per side do not take into account specie differences or size/thickness of fillets
• Microwave heating is frequently found to be non uniform and instructions have been based on time and not internal temperatures
• There is a lack of thermal inactivation data for relevant pathogens due to the variety of seafood and methods of cooking.
• Cooking processes may reduce microbial risks, but the extent of the risk reduction may differ with type of seafood, cooking method and level of pathogens
• Some cooking methods do not provide protection. For example, lightly cooking or steaming does not destroy human enteric viruses
• There is no single temperature that will ensure the safety of all cooked fishery products and result in an acceptable product.

Some key recommendations in the NACMCF report are:

• Review of epidemiological data to determine the role of seafood in foodborne illness.
• Thermal inactivation kinetics must be determined on pertinent pathogens of interest for specific seafood types and cooking methods
• In absence of information, current cooking guidance, as provided by the FDA Food Code, should be followed–even with its uncertainties. These include different cooking temperatures for comminuted, stuffed and raw fish. These recommendations are all predicated on seafood that has been properly handled prior to cooking and consumed shortly after preparation.
• At-risk populations should avoid raw and undercooked seafood products
• Consumer education is critical for updated cooking times and temperatures, and the importance of sanitary practices, temperature control and proper handling.

The full article can be found here.

NACMCF. 2005. Considerations for establishing safety-based consume-by date labels for refrigerated, ready to eat foods. Journal of Food Protection, 68(8):1761-1775.

Listeria monocytogenes has been the pathogenic organism of most concern in refrigerated, ready-to-eat products found in all commodities (See Listeria risk assessment links below). Ready-to-eat seafood is no exception and consumers purchase of variety of these seafood products. This could include salads, spreads and hot/cold smoked products. NACMCF provided expertise regarding establishing scientific parameters for safety-based use-by dates for refrigerated ready-to-eat (RTE) foods to help reduce the risk of foodborne illness. However, with the diversity and number and complexity of food products, practical implementation of safety-based date labels will be difficult. Educational efforts to consumers regarding the importance of temperature control (adequate refrigeration) would lead to a reduction in foodborne illness.

To view this article click here.

Listeria Risk Assessment – U.S. Food and Drug Administration and USDA/Food Safety and Inspection Service – Quantitative Assessment of Relative Risk to Public Health from Food borne Listeria monocytogenes Among Selected Categories of Ready-to-Eat Foods, September 2003.

The United States Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (DHHS/FDA/CFSAN) conducted this risk assessment in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA/FSIS) and in consultation with the DHHS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The purpose of the assessment is to examine systematically the available scientific data and information and to estimate the relative risks of serious illness and death associated with consumption of different types of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods that may be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes.

To view this report click here.

Surveillance for Foodborne-Disease Outbreaks—United States, 1998—2002, Michael Lynch, MD, John Painter, DVM, Rachel Woodruff, MPH, Christopher Braden, MD. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, November 10, 2006, 55(SS10), 1-34.

Since 1973, CDC has maintained a collaborative surveillance program for collection and periodic reporting of data on the occurrence and causes of foodborne-disease outbreaks (FBDOs) in the United States. During 1998–2002, a total of 6,647 outbreaks of foodborne disease were reported. These outbreaks caused a reported 128,370 persons to become ill. Among 2,167 (33%) outbreaks for which the etiology was determined, bacterial pathogens caused the largest percentage of outbreaks (55%) and the largest percentage of cases (55%). Among bacterial pathogens, Salmonella serotype Enteritidis accounted for the largest number of outbreaks and outbreak-related cases; Listeria monocytogenes accounted for the majority of deaths of any pathogen. Viral pathogens, predominantly norovirus, caused 33% of outbreaks and 41% of cases; the proportion of outbreaks attributed to viral agents increased from 16% in 1998 to 42% in 2002. Chemical agents caused 10% of outbreaks and 2% of cases, and parasites caused 1% of outbreaks and 1% of cases. Outbreaks during this period are characterized by type of food (including seafood and other major food commodities), location of outbreak, and causative agent. To view this report click here.

Assessment and Management of Seafood Safety and Quality, Huss, H.H; Ababouch, L; Gram, L., FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 444, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2003.

Abstract: This paper compiles the state of knowledge on fish safety and quality with the view to provide a succinct yet comprehensive resource book to risk and fish quality managers. After an introduction about world fish production and consumption and the developments in safety and quality systems, it provides a detailed review of the hazards causing public health concerns in fish and fish products. It devotes several Chapters to risk mitigation and management tools, with a detailed description of the requirements for the implementation of Good Hygienic and Manufacturing Practices (GHP/GMP), of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and of the monitoring programmes to control biotoxins, pathogenic bacteria and viruses and chemical pollutants. Chapters on the use of microbiological criteria, the use of the HACCP approach to target quality aspects other than safety matters, predictive microbiology, traceability and examples of food safety objectives complete the document. To view this document click here.

Seafood Safety – National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine Report, 1991.

This comprehensive report summarizes seafood safety issues related to microbial risks, natural toxins and chemical contaminants in both commercial and recreationally caught seafood. The report was produced by a multidisciplinary committee of 13 scientists convened under the auspices of the Academy’s Food and Nutrition Board. The committee consisted of experts in the fields of public health, marine pathology, marine toxicology, food science and technology, food microbiology, biostatistics, seafood safety policy and regulations, epidemiology, risk assessment, industry structure, and public interest. The committee was asked to evaluate the health effects of marine and freshwater fishery products (fresh or frozen) available to the consumer from commercial and recreational sources, and to identify options for improvement of the current system of seafood surveillance and control. To view this report click here.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report – Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illnesses: A Primer for Physicians and Other healthcare Professionals, April 16, 2004 / 53(RR04);1-33.

A publication produced collaboratively by the American Medical Association, American Nurses Association–American Nurses Foundation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration Food Safety and Inspection Service, US Department of Agriculture. This publication covers all foodborne illness including those associated with marine toxins. Charts provide information on: incubation period, signs and symptoms, duration of illness, associated foods, laboratory testing and treatment. To view this resource click here.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Marine Biotoxins, FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 80, Rome, 2004.

Foreword:

FAO published this Food and Nutrition Paper on Marine Biotoxins in an effort to support the exchange of scientific information on an important subject of concern for food safety worldwide. Marine biotoxins represent a significant and expanding threat to human health in many parts of the world. The impact is visible in terms of human poisoning or even death following the consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish, as well as mass killings of fish and shellfish, and the death of marine animals and birds. This paper provides an extensive review of different aspects of five shellfish poisoning syndromes (paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, neurologic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning), as well as one fish poisoning syndrome (ciguatera fish poisoning). Various aspects of these poisoning syndromes are discussed in detail including the causative toxins produced by marine organisms, chemical structures and analytical methods of the toxins, habitat and occurrence of the toxin producing organisms, case studies and existing regulations. Based on this analysis, risk assessments are carried out for each of these different toxins, and recommendations elaborated to better manage these risks in order to reduce the harmful effect of these toxins on public health. Work undertaken during this study has underlined the difficulties of performing a scientific-based risk assessment given the lack of data on the toxicology and exposure of diverse marine toxins. The allowance levels currently valid for phycotoxins are generally based on data derived from poisoning incidents in people. However, these data are seldom accurate and complete, and usually restricted to acute toxicity. Therefore, increased attention must be paid to expanding and improving initiatives to monitor, detect and share information on marine biotoxins in the future in order to reduce the public health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated shellfish and fish.
To view this resource click here.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Marine Toxins.

This Website from the CDC National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases (NCZVED) contains information on common marine toxins in a Question & Answer format. Information includes a description of the toxin, common food vehicles, symptoms of illness and tips for prevention. To view this resource click here.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Travelers Health Yellow Book, Chapter 2 Food Poisoning from Marine Toxins.

This CDC resource provides information for travelers that describe the risks, clinical presentation, prevention and treatment for the most common marine toxins including ciguatera, scombrotoxin and shellfish poisoning. To view this resource click here.

National Shellfish Sanitation Program: Guide for the Control of Molluscan Shellfish 2007, Section III. Public Health Reasons and Explanations.

This section of the latest version of the NSSP Molluscan Shellfish Control Manual provides a public health explanation and rationale for each of the required components of this national food safety control program. A description and rationale for requirements of state shellfish control authorities, bacteriological standards for monitoring water quality and classifying harvest waters, requirements for dealers and processors, and for depuration are included. To view this section and/or the entire 2007 NSSP Control Manual click here.