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Seafood Nutrition Overview

Although no single food alone can make a person healthy, good eating habits based on moderation and variety can help to maintain and even improve health. Because of the nutrients found in seafood, current dietary guidelines from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the U.S. Department of Agriculture recommend that Americans increase their seafood intake to twice a week.

Calories

Seafood is considered to be a low calorie food when compared to other protein-rich foods such as meat and poultry. Most lean or lower fat species of fish, such as cod, flounder, and sole, contain 100 calories or less per 3 ounce cooked portion, and even the fattier fish like mackerel, herring, and salmon contain approximately 200 calories or less in a 3 ounce cooked serving. With seafood, you can consume fewer calories to meet your daily protein needs. This is one reason why seafood is a good choice for diets designed to help you lose or maintain an ideal weight.

Protein

Seafood contains a high-quality protein that includes all of the essential amino acids for human health, making it a complete protein source. A 3 ounce cooked serving of most fish or shellfish provides about one-third of the average daily recommended amount of protein. The protein in seafood is also easier to digest because it has less connective tissue than red meats and poultry. This is one reason why fish muscle is so fragile, and why it flakes when cooked and can be eaten without further cutting or slicing. For certain groups of people such as the elderly who may have difficulty chewing or digesting their food, seafood can be a good choice to help them obtain their daily protein needs.

Fat

Seafood is considered to be low in both total fat and saturated fat. Current dietary recommendations suggest that we reduce our total fat intake to less than 30 percent of the calories that we eat, and that we limit our intake of saturated fat. Lean fish have significantly less fat than other protein-rich foods, and most kinds of fish and shellfish contain less than 5 percent total fat. Even the fattiest fish have a fat content similar to lean meats, and contain less fat than most ground beef, some processed meats, and the fattiest (skin and dark meat) portions of some poultry products. Higher fat fish such as mackerel, herring and King salmon have about 15% total fat.

To get a general idea of the fat content of most fish species, look at the color of the flesh. The leanest species such as cod and flounder have a white or lighter color, and fattier fish such as salmon, herring, and mackerel usually have a much darker color. The fat content of fish and shellfish can vary depending on when and where they are caught and other factors. To assist you in comparing common seafood choices the following table groups a variety of fish and shellfish according to their average amount of total fat and percent calories from fat.

Total Fat Content in a 3 ounce cooked Serving of Common Types of Fish and Shellfish
High Fat (10 grams or more) Herring, Mackerel, Sardines, Salmon (Atlantic and Chinook)
Medium Fat (5 to 10 grams) Bluefish, Catfish, Rainbow trout, Salmon (Coho and Sockeye), Swordfish
Low Fat (2 to 5 grams) Tilapia, Halibut, Mussels, Ocean perch, Oysters, Pacific rockfish, Salmon (Chum, Pink)
Very Low Fat (less than 2 grams) Crab, Clams, Cod, Flounder/sole, Haddock, Hake, Lobster, Mahi-mahi, Pollock, Scallops, Shrimp, Tuna

When evaluating a food, it’s important to consider both the total amount of fat and the kind of fat that it contains. The two major kinds of fat are the saturated fats (usually solid at room temperature like butter or lard) and unsaturated fats (usually liquid at room temperature like vegetable oils). Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are two types of unsaturated fat. Current dietary recommendations suggest that we decrease the amount of saturated fat and increase the proportion of unsaturated fat in our diet. A large proportion of the fat in seafood is unsaturated, and seafood contains a unique kind of polyunsaturated fat, called omega-3 fatty acids, which can provide additional health benefits. Because of the amount and kind of fat in seafood it can be a good choice to help you follow current dietary recommendations.

Cholesterol

Most animal foods including seafood contain some cholesterol. Current dietary recommendations suggest that we reduce our cholesterol intake to less than 300 milligrams per day. Almost all types of fish and shellfish contain well under 100 milligrams of cholesterol per 3 ounce cooked serving, and many of the leaner types of fish have less than 60 milligrams. Most shellfish contain less than 100 milligrams of cholesterol per 3 ounce cooked serving. Shrimp contain somewhat higher amounts of cholesterol, with 170 milligrams per 3 ounce cooked serving, and squid is the only seafood that has a significantly elevated cholesterol content which averages almost 400 milligrams per 3 ounce cooked portion. Fish roe, caviar, the internal organs of fish (such as livers), the tomalley of lobsters, and the mustard of crabs can contain high amounts of cholesterol.

Sodium

Current dietary recommendations suggest that we use salt and sodium only in moderation because for some people reducing their sodium intake can decrease risks associated with high blood pressure. The current recommended limit for daily sodium intake is less than 2,300 milligrams for the general adult population and higher risk groups would benefit by further reducing their sodium intake to 1,500 milligrams per day. Fish are naturally low in sodium and even those species with the highest sodium levels contain less than 100 milligrams per 3 ounce cooked portion. Most shellfish generally have more sodium, ranging from 100 to 500 milligrams per 3 ounce cooked serving. Some processed or frozen seafood products may contain significantly higher sodium levels. Products that are brine frozen such as crab legs may contain as much as 800 to 1000 milligrams of sodium per serving, and other products such as surimi or imitation shellfish products, smoked fish, and some canned products that have salt added during processing may also contain higher amounts of sodium. It’s a good idea to carefully read ingredient or nutritional labels for processed products to determine their sodium content.

Vitamins and Minerals

Seafood is generally considered to be a reasonable but not a particularly rich source of vitamins. Fish have levels of B vitamins that are similar to many other protein-rich foods. Fattier fish like mackerel and herring can be a good source of Vitamin D and Vitamin A. Most types of seafood are a reasonable source of minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, and selenium. Canned fish such as salmon and sardines that contain bones which are softened during the canning process can be a good source of calcium, but most fish flesh doesn’t provide a significant amount of calcium. Some shellfish, such as clams and oysters, are a good source of iron, zinc, magnesium, copper, iodine, and other trace minerals. Most fish contain moderate to small amounts of these minerals.

Fish and Shellfish Nutrient Composition Chart

This chart provides the nutrient composition for a 3 ounce cooked portion of the 20 most frequently consumed seafood products identified by the FDA.

Fat and Fatty Acids

Breading and frying is a popular way of preparing seafood products, but the oil can be absorbed into the raw product causing an increase in total fat and calories. The chart below shows how breading and frying seafood can double the calories in a 3-ounce serving. Frying or deep-frying does not just increase total fat; it can change the amount of beneficial omega-3 fatty acids in each serving. Health organizations suggest eating seafood twice per week to get an average daily intake of 250 milligrams of omega-3 fatty acids in the diet. Frying can cause these beneficial omega-3 fatty acids to dissolve in the cooking oil. It can even change the amount of each omega-3 fatty acid present, creating a less healthy ratio. Instead of serving seafood fried, there are preparation methods that can maintain its healthy benefits, including: poaching, steaming, baking, broiling, stir-frying and microwaving. 

Healthy Seafood Preparation

Nutrient Healthy Preparation Use in Limited Amounts
Fat & Fatty Acids Grilling, poaching, steaming, baking, broiling, and stir-frying Breaded and fried/deep fried
Cholesterol Use sauces that are wine or vegetable-based Sauces using eggs or dairy
Sodium Use lemon and other herbs, such as dill, fennel, cilantro for fish fillets; and basil, chives, oregano, thyme, and rosemary for shellfish Marinades or large amounts of smoked fish

Seafood Nutrient Table

The table below contains nutrient information for popular raw, cooked and processed seafood products, including total fat, sodium, and fatty acid content. All values are presented in 3-ounce portions, but keep in mind that serving sizes can range from 3 to 8-ounces depending on the recipe and individual preferences. A 3-ounce serving of fish is the size of a deck of cards. Nutrient information for other seafood products can be found at this USDA website.

Salmon Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Atlantic Salmon 177 11.41 2.59 1671 50 47
Baked Atlantic Salmon 175 10.50 2.12 1825 52 54
Raw Chinook Salmon 152 8.87 2.63 1659 40 42
Smoked Chinook Salmon 99 3.67 0.79 383 666 20
Kippered Chinook Salmon 178 11.01 2.07 1062 740 57
Raw Sockeye Salmon 144 5.69 0.77 673 114 54
Canned Sockeye Salmon 141 6.21 1.33 1228 306 37
Smoked Sockeye Salmon 175 6.17 1.25 1335 510 79
Salmon Nuggets or Burger 180 9.96 1.33 422 147 22

Catfish Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Catfish 101 5.05 1.11 62 83 47
Baked Catfish 122 6.11 1.34 76 101 56
Battered and Fried Catfish 195 11.33 2.79 290 238 60

Clam and Oyster Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Oysters 50 1.32 0.37 333 151 21
Baked/Grilled Oysters 67 1.80 0.58 384 139 32
Battered and Fried Oysters 169 10.69 2.71 357 354 60
Raw Clams 73 0.82 0.15 91 511 26
Canned Clams 121 1.35 0.26 150 95 42
Battered and Fried Clams 333 19.52 4.88 N/A 616 65
Clam chowder (1 cup) 154 5.09 2.75 26 688 18

Shrimp Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Shrimp 60 0.86 0.09 51 481 107
Steamed Shrimp 101 1.45 0.16 87 805 179
Battered and Fried Shrimp 206 10.44 1.7 198 292 117

Pollock Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Alaskan Pollock 78 0.83 0.11 357 73 60
Battered and Fried Fish Fillet 197 10.45 2.39 N/A 452 29
Battered and Fried Fish Sticks 212 11.26 2.33 343 358 24
Fish sandwich 243 13.29 3.781 N/A 436 68

Tuna Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Skipjack 88 0.86 0.27 217 31 40
Canned Light Tuna (oil) 168 6.98 1.3 109 301 15
Canned Light Tuna (water) 99 0.70 0.19 230 287 26
Canned White Tuna (oil) 158 6.87 1.08 207 337 26
Canned White Tuna (water) 109 2.52 0.67 733 320 36
Tuna salad 159 7.87 1.3 59 342 11

Crab Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Blue Crab 74 0.92 0.18 273 249 66
Canned Blue Crab 71 0.63 0.17 143 336 82
Blue Crab cakes 132 6.39 1.26 377 280 128
Raw Alaskan King Crab 71 0.51 0.07 N/A 711 36
Steamed Alaskan King Crab 82 1.31 0.11 351 911 45
Imitation Alaskan King Crab, surimi 81 0.39 0.15 N/A 715 17

Herring Nutrient Content

Seafood
(3 ounces)		 Calories
(kcal)		 Total Fat
(g)		 Saturated Fat
(g)		 Omega-3’s, 
EPA+DHA
(mg)		 Sodium
(mg)		 Cholesterol
(mg)
Raw Herring 134 7.68 1.73 1336 76 51
Broiled or Baked Herring 173 9.85 2.22 1712 98 65
Pickled herring 223 15.31 2.02 1181 740 11

*All values obtained from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

Overview of the Seafood Industry

Overview

A wide variety of seafood products are available in the U.S. marketplace from many different sources. In the U.S., wild fish and shellfish are harvested by commercial fishermen in both near shore and open ocean waters, and in fresh water lakes or rivers. Farm raised (aquacultured) seafood products are raised both on land in ponds (catfish), or re-circulating tanks (tilapia and hybrid bass), and in near shore coastal waters (salmon and shellfish). These same methods are used to farm a wide variety of fish and shellfish in other countries around the world which are then imported into the U.S.

Once seafood products are harvested, they are generally processed or packaged for distribution to retail stores and restaurants. Wild fish and shellfish are unloaded from harvest vessels and farmed products are harvested from facilities then transported and packed for distribution to processing plants or wholesalers. Processors convert the whole fish or shellfish to various other product forms such as fresh fish fillets or steaks or other items such as frozen products, breaded fish portions, and canned or smoked products. Some of these products may be further converted by secondary processors to heat and serve or ready-to-eat products like seafood salads, entrees or other items. Wholesalers and foodservice distributors receive both raw and processed products from many different domestic and foreign sources and distribute them to retail stores and restaurants. Consumers purchase these products from retail stores for home consumption or at restaurants and other foodservice establishments.

Sources of Fish and Shellfish Consumed in the U.S.

The commercial seafood products consumed by Americans at home or in restaurants or other foodservice establishments primarily come from three different sources: U.S. commercial fisheries, U.S. aquaculture production, or imports brought into the U.S. from other countries. Seafood is also a unique food in that a large amount of fish and shellfish are harvested from the wild by individuals for recreational purposes and some of that harvest is also consumed. The following information provides an overview of the types of fish and shellfish that comes from these four different sources.

U.S. Commercial Fisheries

Commercial landings (edible and industrial) by U.S. fishermen at ports in the 50 states were 9.9 billion pounds or 4.5 million metric tons valued at $5.4 billion in 2017—an increase of 344 million pounds (up by 3.6%) and an increase of $110 million (up 2.1%) compared with 2016.

Over 50% of all U.S. landings were fish caught by in the Pacific Ocean within the Alaska region including groundfish like Pacific cod, flounders, hake, ocean perch, Alaska pollock, and rockfishes. Other important commercial Pacific Ocean species are salmon, halibut, Dungeness, King and Snow crab, tuna, and squid. In the Atlantic Ocean, some of the most economically important species include: scallops, lobster, clams, blue crab, oysters, and herring. Shrimp is an important fishery in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic. Another important fishery is groundfish species caught by trawlers in the North Atlantic from Chesapeake Bay through New England that include: butterfish, Atlantic cod, cusk, haddock, hake, ocean perch, and Atlantic pollock. A variety of finfish species such as tuna, flounder, grouper, snapper and other reef fish are important fisheries in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. The menhaden fishery in the Mid-Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico is also important, but is not used for human food but for bait or conversion to fish oil and fish meal that is used in a variety of products.

U.S. Aquaculture Production

In 2016, estimated freshwater plus marine U.S. aquaculture production was 633.5 million pounds with a value of $1.45 billion, an increase of 6.1 million pounds (1.0%) in volume and $60.6 million (4.3%) in value from 2015. Pond raised catfish represents the most significant species of the total farm raised seafood products produced annually in the U.S. Other important domestically produced aquaculture food products in order of the quantity produced include: salmon, crawfish, trout, oysters, tilapia, striped bass, clams, shrimp, and mussels.

Imported Seafood Products

The total import value of edible and nonedible fishery products was $38.4 billion in 2017—an increase of $2.5 billion (7.0%) compared with 2016. Imports of edible fishery products (product weight) were 5.9 billion pounds valued at $21.5 billion in 2017. Volume increased 92.8 million pounds (1.6%), while value increased by $2.0 billion (10.4%) compared with 2016. Imports of nonedible (i.e., industrial) products were $16.9 billion—an increase of $473.9 million (2.9%) compared with 2016.

China is the largest producer of seafood products in the world, followed by India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Bangladesh. Globally, carps (30.5 million metric tons), tilapias (5.9 million metric tons), and salmon (3.3 million metric tons) are the finfish species groups with the greatest production. Clams (5.6 million metric tons), oysters (5.6 million metric tons), and shrimp (5.2 million metric tons) are the shellfish species groups with the most production. Aquatic plant farming, primarily seaweed, also represents a significant sector of global aquaculture production (30.1 million metric tons, valued at 11.6 billion). Seaweed farming is just now establishing in the U.S. and shows promise to become an important contributor to future U.S. marine aquaculture production.

Recreational Fisheries in the U.S.

NOAA estimated 8.6 million marine recreational anglers made 202 million marine recreational fishing trips in the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico in 2017. Alaska data are not available for the current year. The estimated total marine recreational catch was 1 billion fish, of which 64 percent was released alive. The estimated total weight of harvested catch was nearly 447 million pounds. The Atlantic coast accounted for the majority of trips (69%) and catch (nearly 62%). The Gulf coast accounted for 28 percent of trips, and more than 36 percent of the catch. The Pacific coast accounted for nearly 2 percent of trips, and over 1 percent of the catch. Nationally, most (nearly 56% in numbers of fish) of the recreational catch came from inland waters, more than 34 percent from state territorial seas, and more than 9 percent from the EEZ. The majority of Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific trips fished primarily in inland waters.

Seafood Processing

The processing sector of the seafood industry converts the whole fish or shellfish harvested by fishermen or produced by aquaculture operations in the U.S. or in other countries into the products that are sold at retail stores or restaurants. The National Marine Fisheries Service estimated the estimated value of the 2017 domestic production of edible and nonedible processed fishery products was $12 billion, up 1.2 billion (10.8%) from 2016. The value of edible products was $11 billion—up 1.1 billion (10.7%) compared with 2016. The value of industrial products was $903.1 million in 2017—up 96.3 million (11.9%) from 2016. The annual U.S. production of raw (uncooked) fish fillets and steaks, including blocks, include a number of major species processed: Alaskan Pollock, salmon, cod, hake, flounders and haddock. 

Primary processors generally convert whole fish into fish fillets, steaks, loins, or shuck or cook raw shellfish, or remove the edible meat. These edible portions are then packed in some way and distributed as fresh refrigerated products or are frozen prior to distribution to wholesalers or directly to retail stores or restaurants. Other processors pack these edible portions into cans or other containers and apply a heat process to eliminate microorganisms that could cause the product to spoil or cause foodborne illness. Canned products are treated to sterilize their contents and can be stored without refrigeration. Pasteurized products are heat treated in a way that eliminates most but not all microorganisms and must be stored under refrigeration. Other processes could include the use of high pressure, irradiation or other treatments to sterilize or pasteurize the seafood product.

Secondary processors convert fresh or frozen fish and shellfish products and other ingredients into the final products that are available in retail stores and restaurants. Examples of value added finished seafood products could include: smoked seafood products, sushi, seafood salads and sandwiches, and seafood entrees or meals.

Seafood Wholesale and Distribution

There is a large network of wholesale and distribution businesses in the U.S. that purchase seafood products from a variety of different sources, store them, assemble the items into orders for customers, and deliver them. There are many variations to this basic business model. Some businesses specialize in specific types of products, or products from a specific geographic area. Other businesses called “broadline” distributors, buy and sell a full line of all types of products to meet their customers’ needs. Other businesses may focus on the unique needs of specific customers such as retail stores, restaurants, or institutional buyers with the the military, prisons, schools or hospitals. This much needed commercial business network is responsible for sourcing, purchasing, transporting, storing and delivering the seafood products available in our Nation’s diverse markets.

Seafood Retail Stores

Fresh, frozen and processed seafood products are primarily available to consumers for home consumption from retail stores. It has been estimated that about one third of the seafood consumed in the U.S. is purchased at retail stores for home consumption. There are many different types of retail stores with different business strategies. Small independent stores often specialize in products caught by local fisherman but also supply popular items such as shrimp which may come from Asia. Large retail chains also offer a variety of products which may also include locally caught items and a variety of other products from other regions of the U.S. or the world. Although there is some variation in the availability of seafood across the U.S., in most areas there is a wide variety of choices for retail purchases of seafood products.

Restaurants and Foodservice

U.S. consumers spend about two thirds of their annual expenditures on seafood in restaurants, cafeterias or other types of foodservice businesses. Seafood is an important item on the menu for most foodservice operations and the selection varies depending on the type of consumer that is targeted and menu prices. Fish portions, breaded shrimp, clams and other items are served in a variety of chain restaurants because of their consistent cost and good value. Portion sizes are easy to control and they can be prepared quickly and consistently. Seafood is frequently used as an ingredient in pasta or rice dishes and in sandwiches, wraps, soups and other entrees in a variety of mid-priced restaurants. Fresh seafood is also widely available in restaurants that feature one or more chefs that use their skills to creatively prepare different local or specialty items depending on availability and demand.

Overview of the U.S. Seafood Supply

Seafood in the American Diet

Over the past two decades per capita consumption of seafood products (fish + shellfish) in the U.S. has ranged from a low of 14.6 pounds per person in 1997 to a record high of 16.5 pounds in 2004 and 2006. Since 2004, U.S. annual consumption of fish and shellfish has gradually decreased to 14.9 pounds per person in 2018. For comparison, U.S. annual per capita consumption of other food commodities in 2016 is: beef about 55.4 pounds, chicken near 90.1 pounds, dairy products over 600 pounds, vegetables over 380 pounds, fruits over 250 pounds, and flour and cereal products over 170 pounds.

Description of Top Commercial Seafood Items

A wide variety of fish and shellfish products are available in the marketplace. It has been estimated that hundreds of different species of fish and shellfish are sold annually. However, ten different types of fish and shellfish products represent more than 80% of the seafood consumed in the U.S. About 55% of all seafood consumed in 2017 was limited to three types of seafood: shrimp, canned tuna and salmon. One new product which has increased in consumption is fish from Pangasius species, that are called basa, swai or tra in the U.S. These fish are farmed in freshwater and primarily imported from the Mekong River delta region in Vietnam.

Types of Seafood Products Consumed

About three fourths of the seafood products consumed in the U.S. are fresh or frozen, and consumption of these product forms has reached a plateau. Slightly more than half of the fresh or frozen products consumed are finfish and less than half shellfish, primarily shrimp. Canned seafood products account for slightly less than one fourth of the seafood consumed in the U.S., and the amount has decreased steadily over the past two decades. Canned tuna represents about 60% of all the canned seafood consumed in the U.S., but the amount of canned tuna consumed has fallen from a high of 3.9 pounds per person in 1989 to 0 pounds in 2017. Canned shellfish represents over 13% of all canned products consumed, followed by sardines at 6.5%. Cured seafood items such as smoked, salted or pickled products have consistently been about 2% of all seafood products consumed over the past two decades.

The U.S. Seafood Supply

Imported Seafood Supply – The majority of seafood consumed in the U.S. is imported from other countries around the world. This number continues to rise in order to meet consumer demand. However, NOAA Fisheries data shows that a significant portion of this imported seafood is caught by American fishermen, exported overseas for processing, and then imported back to the U.S. With much of this imported seafood representing fresh or frozen products. Shrimp is the leading fresh or frozen product imported into the U.S. followed by freshwater fillets and steaks, salmon, tuna, groundfish (cod, haddock and hakes), crabs and crabmeat, frozen fish blocks used to make fish sticks or portions, squid and lobster. The leading foreign suppliers of seafood products to the U.S. in 2014 were China, Canada, India, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. About two thirds of the edible seafood imported into the U.S. came from these six countries.

U.S. Domestic Seafood Supply

Commercial Fisheries – About 9.5 billion pounds of edible seafood products with a dockside value of $5.4 billion were landed in the U.S. in 2017. The majority (over 80%) of this catch is finfish and the rest is shellfish. The leading species landed by U.S. commercial fishermen in 2017 in descending order includes: Alaska pollock, menhaden, tuna, cod, and salmon. Alaska led all states in volume of landings in 2017 with over 60% of the total catch; followed by the Gulf of Mexico 14%, Atlantic 13%, and Pacific regions at 12%.

Aquaculture Production – The production of farm raised fish and shellfish in 2017 was about 633 million pounds worth $1.5 billion. In the United States, the amount of fish and shellfish harvested from the wild annually is more than 10 times greater than the amount produced by domestic aquaculture farms. Pond raised catfish represents a little over half of the total farm raised seafood products produced annually in the U.S. Other important domestically produced aquaculture products in order of the quantity produced include: crawfish, trout, oysters, salmon, tilapia, striped bass, clams, shrimp and mussels.

Processed Products – The value of seafood products processed in the U.S. in 2017 was over $10 billion. Government figures estimate that there were 3,137 seafood processing and wholesale plants in the U.S. that employed almost 63,000 people in 2017. States with the largest number of people employed in seafood processing or wholesale plants were: Alaska, Washington, California, Massachusetts, Florida, Texas, Mississippi and Louisiana. The major seafood products processed in the U.S. were canned seafood (primarily tuna and sardine), fresh and frozen fish fillets and steaks, breaded fish portions and sticks, and breaded shrimp.

Recreational Fisheries – According to National Marine Fisheries Service estimates, in 2017, more than 8 million anglers made over 202 million marine recreational fishing trips in the U.S. The estimated total marine recreational catch was nearly 397 million fish. The estimated total weight of the recreationally harvested catch was almost 447 million pounds. Nationally, most (56 percent in numbers of fish) of the recreational catch came from estuaries, 34 percent from state or territorial coastal marine waters 0 to 3 miles from the shore, and nearly 9 percent from federal ocean waters from 3 to 200 miles from shore.

FAQs

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What is surimi?

Originating in Japan several centuries ago, surimi is a uniquely functional food ingredient made of fish proteins and used in surimi seafood products. Surimi consists of fish proteins that are refined through heading, gutting and mincing the fish, then washing, removing water, and freezing the remaining protein. Good quality surimi is odorless and has a creamy white appearance. Surimi has excellent gelling properties so that it can be formed into various shapes. The US is the leading country for the production of surimi. Alaska pollock is most often used followed by Pacific whiting in the manufacture of surimi.

Surimi seafood consists of unique seafood ingredients with flavor similar to that of naturally occurring crab, shrimp, lobster and other shellfish with added convenience, safety and versatility. Surimi seafood is formed by mixing various food ingredients and formed into various shapes before cooking and setting the gel structure of the final product. In manufacturing crab-flavored seafood made with surimi, shellfish flavors are added to give the food its recognizable character. Surimi seafood is vacuum-packed and pasteurized to destroy harmful bacteria (pathogens). Most retail products are both fat-free and low in cholesterol. They are often nutritionally enhanced with the inclusion of omega-3 oil. The development of crabstick in Japan in 1974-1975 was a cornerstone for the globalization of surimi seafood. The United States started to manufacture crabstick in 1981 and has its current market over 400 million pounds.

Which fish are sustainable, protected or managed (not overfished or threatened)?

All federally-managed fisheries in the United States are required to be managed for sustainability under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, the law of the land for U.S. fisheries. Most state-managed fisheries are also required to be managed for sustainability. U.S. law also directs when fisheries are to be protected due to certain levels of depletion. All federally-managed fisheries are required to be managed in a way where a certain amount of the population is left “untouched” before fishing is allowed to take place. Stock assessments are conducted on a major portion of U.S. fisheries on an annual basis to determine the status of fish stock populations. These stock assessments are used by fisheries managers to determine if populations are depleted and if specific management measures are required to “protect” the species as it rebuilds to a larger population. Federal law also dictates when a fish stock is “threatened” based on stock assessments and certain steps are then taken to protect the stock. Any seafood choice which was lawfully caught and processed in the United States is managed to meet sustainability requirements

Are seafood advisory cards a good source of information for species?

There are a number of advisory cards available from a variety of sources to assist consumers with their seafood purchasing choices. The cards generally reflect an organization’s policy stance or specific agenda with regards to fishing practices or other marine issues and thus the cards may contradict each other depending on the source. This can lead to consumer confusion. Additionally, criteria used to “score” seafood choices by an organization is not standardized or based on any federal fisheries management requirements but rather is reflective of the organizations’ policy stance. Most U.S. fisheries are managed for sustainability under U.S. federal or state law, which includes a requirement that no overfishing be allowed. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Fish Watch provides consumers with balanced fishery information that includes whether or not a fishery is considered overfished based on scientific stock assessments. If you choose to utilize seafood advisory cards from non-governmental organizations you are encouraged to do additional homework on your own or consult Fishwatch to ensure that you are receiving the most complete, accurate, and up to date information regarding your seafood choice.

How much seafood should I eat?

Current recommendations for the general population from the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans are to eat 8 or more ounces of a variety of seafood each week. The American Heart Association recommends eating fish (particularly fatty fish) at least two times per week. The Dietary Guidelines, which are issued every 5 years by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, also recommend that everyone increase the amount and variety of seafood consumed by choosing seafood in place of some meat and poultry. It is a good idea to choose from a variety of the different types of fish and shellfish available in U.S. markets when selecting your two seafood meals each week. All seafood contains heart healthy omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, and herring are particularly rich in omega-3s.

The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans also recommend pregnant women or women who will become pregnant or are nursing should consume at least 8 ounces and up to 12 ounces of seafood per week, and limit the amount of albacore (white) tuna to 6 ounces per week and not to eat tilefish, shark, swordfish, and king mackerel because of mercury concerns.

Does seafood have hormones, antibiotics, or drugs?

Wild-caught seafood has no hormones, antibiotics or drugs. This question usually arises concerning aquacultured or farm-raised seafood products. Unlike beef products, hormones are not used during fish farming. There is, however, a short list of antibiotics that have been approved for use in the United States, by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for aquacultured finfish (e.g. salmon and catfish). Aquacultured shellfish (e.g. oysters) do not have any antibiotics approved for use.

Antibiotics are used for farm-raised finfish for the same reasons that they might be used for beef. These are issues related to infection or illness of the fish. Just like meat or poultry, producers of aquacultured fish must stop administering antibiotics 30-180 days, depending on the antibiotic, prior to sale. This is to assure the antibiotics have been completely expelled by the fish or are far below the level that the FDA have determined to be safe for human consumption.

Where did the seafood come from?

All seafood sold in the United States is required to have a country of origin label. The majority of seafood consumed in the United States is imported. There is also a significant portion that is shipped from regions around the nation. Often local selections are preferred but the growing demand for seafood requires multiple sources to meet buyer expectations. The location of seafood harvest or production should be available at the point of purchase, and can be categorized as the following:

Local – neighboring waters or farms (aquaculture)

Domestic – location within the United States; coast, lake, river, farm; or city, county, and/or state

Imported – foreign country or location within a foreign country

Additional evidence (labels, pictures, maps) for the location of harvest and comments about the location and products may also be available.

Is it wild or farm raised?

All seafood (fish and shellfish) sold in the United States is required to be labeled with the type of production (wild or farm-raised). Seafood consumption in the United States has reached over 50% farmed sources and the growing demand for healthful seafood requires more farmed production. Increasing sources will introduce new choices from new locations, creating the ability to have diversity in the selection of healthful choices with different flavors, forms and costs. Fortunately, wild and farmed seafood are subject to the same regulatory measures for product safety regardless of the source (see How do I know that the producers of farm-raised fish have complied with the regulatory requirements?)

How can I be sure the fish is not contaminated?

There are two kinds of potential contamination in fish: chemical and bacterial. Issues associated with chemical contamination, like PCB’s and mercury, are answered by other questions (e.g. Does my fish contain PCB’s?; Does all seafood have mercury?). For bacterial contamination issues, a retailer will keep fish and shellfish cold to help control bacterial growth for quality and safety reasons. They will also keep cooked seafood away from raw seafood to avoid cross-contamination. A consumer should handle seafood in the same way. The consumer has control over bacterial growth in fish after its purchase and when it arrives at home.

Like all raw beef, poultry and pork products, all fresh/frozen, raw seafood contains bacteria – most will spoil the fish but others might get you sick. However, if the seafood is properly handled after purchase and at home (kept cold or frozen until cooked), and cooked properly, any disease-causing bacteria will be killed. It is always best to cook seafood thoroughly to minimize the risk of bacterial foodborne illness and avoid cross-contamination between any raw seafood and already cooked or ready-to-eat (e.g. salads, fruit, smoked products) foods. If you choose to eat raw or undercooked seafood, choose high quality seafood from a reputable dealer. Remember there is risk associated with consuming undercooked seafood so young children, females who are pregnant or nursing and immuno-compromised individuals and older adults should avoid eating it.

What can I do if I suspect I did not get the fish I ordered?

Buying or ordering one type (specie) of fish or shellfish and not getting what you ordered is disappointing and also fraud – it is against the law. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and state departments of health all consider it – species substitution — a type of fraud. Some states like Florida take this very seriously and consumers can file a complaint directly online. Fraud is not always intentional. It can occur because of misunderstanding or lack of information, or it can be an honest mistake by a grocery store or restaurant if they bought a misrepresented product. Ignorance of the mislabeling does not excuse the violation, however, and the FDA holds the seller responsible.

What can you do? Become an informed consumer – know your seafood – learn what the fish looks like. Many species have distinguishing marks or specific origins, and an informed consumer can watch for the marks or ask the fish market manager where the fish comes from. Consumers can also check one of many well-illustrated seafood cookbooks. These have information on what species look like, and how to tell the difference between substitutes and the real thing. Usually there’s also information about the texture and taste of a species. If a product isn’t as expected after it’s cooked, consumers can discuss the problem with the fish market manager or restaurant staff where the product was purchased.

Does my fish contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)?

The greatest risk of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is from recreationally caught fish from contaminated waters. Always check for any advisories at your local or state health department or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) (http://epa.gov/waterscience/fish/states.htm) prior to eating recreationally caught fish or shellfish. Removing the skin and trimming the fat from fish can lower the PCB exposure levels by as much as 40%.

PCBs are man-made pollutants that were introduced into the environment from various commercial and industrial applications. These compounds were banned in the United States in the 1970s but continue to be present in the environment. Although the environmental levels are decreasing, their presence is still a concern because they can have negative effects on the developing fetus and may increase the risk of certain cancers. Exposure to PCBs is mainly through the diet. PCBs can concentrate in animal fats found in meats, seafood, and dairy products. PCB concern in seafood is generally for fresh waters, estuaries, and near-shore coastal waters rather than the open ocean. Most commercial seafood is well below the tolerance level of 2.0 parts per million (ppm) set by the U.S. FDA, with numerous studies reporting levels of PCBs in a variety of fish and shellfish ranging from 0.0005 to 0.100 ppm.

If I am allergic to shrimp, will I be allergic to all seafood?

Seafood is one of the top 8 food groups or Major Food Allergens as defined by Food Allergy Labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA). Under FALCPA, food labels are required to state clearly whether the food contains a major food allergen.

If you are allergic to shrimp there is a chance that you may also be allergic to other seafood and their products. You should work with your physician to determine what specific seafoods are allergic to.

There are some food safety considerations that consumers should be aware of before they select the types of seafood products they intend to eat. For example, individuals need to be aware of any allergies that they might have to specific types of fish, shellfish (clams, oysters) or crustaceans (shrimp, lobsters, crab). Finfish and crustaceans are two of the eight key allergens that account for 90% of allergic responses from food. Since proper cooking and handling will not remove the allergenic properties of the food, it is necessary for consumers to avoid the food of concern.

Why do shrimp (and some crabs) turn pink/red when they're cooked?

The pink or red color associated with cooked shrimp and some crabs is caused by the same compounds responsible for the pink/red color in salmon and the orange color in carrots. Shrimp and some crabs contain astaxanthin, which is classified as a carotene (a subclass of carotenoids), and are the pigments responsible for the red, orange, and yellow colors found in foods and nature. Prior to cooking, the astaxanthin compounds are covered in a protein shell, causing the shrimp or crabs to appear a darker or grey color. Once these proteins are exposed to heat they break down and release the astaxanthin compounds resulting in the pink/red color common in cooked shrimp and some crabs. For further information, read “Does the salmon have color additives?”

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Is raw seafood like oysters and sushi safe to eat?

Most consumers can safely eat raw shellfish harvested from approved waters or sushi from a reputable source. Some special populations, including young children, elderly adults, pregnant women and any person with a compromised immune system due to other health conditions should only eat thoroughly cooked seafood. Compromised immune systems can be associated with liver diseases, alcoholism, chemotherapy, steroid use, AIDS, diabetes and/or routine use of antacids. For shellfish available on the market, national and state regulations require information on approved sources and harvest locations marked on all product tags or labels. The intent is to assure the shellfish do not contain any potential substances or bacteria that could cause a potential illness. Most states require consumer advisory statements posted in markets or listed on menus if they are serving raw products. Wording in the required health advisories is for consumption of any raw animal products like meat, poultry, oysters, and eggs which may contain potentially harmful viruses or bacteria. Cooking seafood to 145°F for 15 seconds will destroy harmful viruses and bacteria.

What's the difference between farm-raised salmon and salmon caught in the wild?

Generally only very discerning people can tell the difference in taste between farm-raised and wild-caught salmon. However, there are some differences between farm-raised and wild-caught salmon that consumers may want to consider prior to purchasing products. The main difference between farm-raised and wild-caught salmon is the species. Most farm-raised salmon are Atlantic salmon and this type of product is farmed and available year-round. Wild-caught salmon are generally one of five types of Pacific salmon (Chinook, chum, coho, pink and sockeye). The season for wild-caught salmon is generally May through September and fresh wild-caught varieties are available during that time frame. During the late fall and winter months, wild-caught salmon are generally available in frozen form. Wild-caught salmon is generally more expensive than farm-raised alternatives. Additionally, nutritional content can vary slightly as influenced by their food supply. This is because nutrients in wild products reflect their seasonal diet in the harvest waters, while farmed products reflect the feeds that can be controlled during growth. Farm-raised and wild-caught salmon are healthy menu choices that are both low in fat and high in protein.

Does all seafood have mercury?

Although all fish have trace amounts of mercury, levels vary widely and most fish have very low amounts. Mercury is a natural element that is found in small quantities in air, water and all living things. There has been an increased concern about mercury in seafood over the last decade because mercury is toxic in large quantities. This has caused unwarranted alarm about all seafood and general confusion about what is safe to eat or not.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has established guidelines for allowable levels of mercury content in fish and seafood products which is 1.0 parts per million (ppm). Studies have shown that the highest levels of mercury are found in large predatory fish such as sharks, some billfish and large tunas, e.g. bluefin tuna. Smaller tunas such as skipjack, which is used for canned light tuna, have much less (average: 0.12 ppm). The good news is that the most popular species consumed in the United States have been shown to have low mercury levels. Salmon is very low in mercury (<0.1 ppm) as well as sardines, flounder, cod, shrimp, oysters and other species.

Should women who are pregnant or young children be concerned about mercury in seafood?

The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans has established guidelines for seafood consumption for children and women who are or may become pregnant or who are breastfeeding. The guidelines are as follows:

– Eat at least 8 ounces and up to 12 ounces of a variety of lower-mercury seafood per week
– Can eat all types of tuna, including albacore (white) and light canned tuna, but should limit white tuna to 6 ounces per week.
– Avoid large predatory fish, such as shark, swordfish, tilefish, or king mackerel which can be higher in mercury
– Should not eat raw or partially cooked seafood, including smoked or cold smoked products.

The guidelines also recommend that obstetricians and pediatricians should provide guidance to women who are pregnant or breastfeeding to help them make healthy food choices that include seafood. Some of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are shrimp, canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish. Scientific research has shown that seafood consumption reduces coronary heart disease and helps cognitive development and visual acuity in children.

Does salmon have color additives?

Wild salmon get their pink or reddish flesh color through their diet of krill, plankton, and other small organisms. These organisms contain astaxanthin, which is a natural antioxidant in the same family as the beta-carotene found in carrots. Astaxanthin and beta-carotene are classified as carotenes, which are a subclass of carotenoids, and are the pigments responsible for the red, orange, and yellow colors found in foods and nature. Similarly to wild-caught salmon, farm-raised salmon are provided color through their diets by ingesting these same carotenes, primarily astaxanthin and a similar compound canthaxanthin. These compounds, which are added to salmon feed, are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as color additives in food. Currently, most of the astaxanthin and canthaxanthin used in salmon feed is synthetic, although research is being done to improve the process of natural synthesis using microorganisms.

Salmon and trout have the unique ability to retain carotenes in their flesh. A white flesh fish species, such as catfish, does not have this ability and it is not necessary to include these compounds in the diet of farm-raised catfish. In order for farm-raised salmon and trout to be acceptable to consumers, their color must be similar to the wild-caught fish consumers are familiar with. Recently, it is required to label farm-raised salmon as ‘color added’ because of the addition of carotenes in their feed, seafood companies do not add dyes directly to the flesh of the fish.

How do I know that the producers of farm-raised fish have complied with the regulatory requirements regarding antibiotics?

The use of antibiotics in the United States is strictly controlled by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Center for Veterinary Medicine. The FDA also implements the seafood safety regulation. In addition to oversight over the safety of all seafood, this regulation also requires that all United States processors/distributors ensure that aquacultured finfish products conform to all requirements concerning antibiotics/drugs use.

All seafood imports must conform to the United States seafood safety regulations. While oversees producers must fully comply with United States mandates for safety, the FDA cannot inspect and test all imported products. The United States importers are required by the law to make sure that farm-raised seafood products coming into this country comply with all safety requirements – including those pertaining to antibiotics. With the new Food Safety Modernization Act, 2010, the FDA should have more resources to inspect imported products. In addition, there are other voluntary standardization programs that may help certify imported aquacultured products.

Do fish have worms (parasites)?

All living organisms, including fish can have worms which are considered parasites because they feed off of their hosts. Because their presence occurs naturally, the worms are not considered contaminants. Worms are as common in fish as insects are in fruits and vegetables. Worms are not a concern in thoroughly cooked or commercially frozen fish.

When cooking fish, it should be cooked to heat all parts of the product to 145ºF or above for 15 seconds.

Worms become a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi, sushi, ceviche, and gravlax. When preparing these products, use commercially frozen fish. Alternatively, freeze the fish to an internal temperature of -4°F for at least 7 days to kill any parasites that may be present. Home freezers may not be cold enough to kill the parasites.

The health risk from parasites is far less than the risk from “unseen” illness causing bacteria which are present on almost all foods.

How do shellfish compare in cholesterol content?

The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends limiting dietary cholesterol to 300 milligrams per day. Most types of seafood are low in cholesterol and all types have less in a 4-ounce serving than the current recommended daily intake from food. The following three groups describe the cholesterol content of most types of seafood consumed in the United States.

– Most types of fish commonly consumed in the U.S. including tuna, flatfish, cod, catfish, halibut, trout, and pangasius (basa or swai) have less than one fifth of the suggested daily cholesterol intake.
– Common types of fish such as salmon, pollock and tilapia and shellfish including clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, crabs and lobster have a slightly higher amount of cholesterol, but still less than one third of the recommended daily limit.
– Two seafood products have higher cholesterol levels. Shrimp contains between 50 and 60 percent of the recommended daily intake, and squid (calamari) contains about 75 percent of the recommended daily intake.

People who are trying to limit their cholesterol intake and meet current dietary guidelines can easily eat two meals per week of a variety of different seafood products. When selecting shrimp and squid (calamari), keep in mind that a significant portion of your suggested daily cholesterol intake will come from this meal.

What are omega-3s?

Fish and shellfish contain unique types of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) called omega-3 fatty acids or omega-3s. The omega-3s found in seafood are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These omega-3s are essential for healthy human development and must be consumed through the diet. It is well documented through scientific studies that these marine-derived omega-3s can help reduce the risk of heart disease and contribute to the brain and vision development of infants. EPA and DHA can be found in all seafood and other marine products such as algae, although fatty or oily fish will have higher amounts. Other types of omega-3s, such as the plant-derived alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) can be used to form EPA and DHA in the body, but conversion rates can be as low at 10%.

Health organizations, scientific organizations, and government authorities around the world recognize the importance of consuming marine derived omega-3 fatty acids for heart health and development in infants and children. Recommendations are to consume an average of 250 mg per day of EPA and DHA, and the American Heart Association recommends 1000 mg per day for people with cardiovascular disease. The 2010Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that the general population consume 8 or more ounces of seafood per week to reach this average level of EPA and DHA in the diet.

Are saltwater fish higher in omega-3 fatty acids than freshwater fish?

All seafood, fresh and saltwater, contains omega-3 fatty acids unique to seafood (see “What are Omega-3s”). Although omega-3 fatty acids are usually associated with marine species such as salmon or herring, freshwater species, usually from cold northern waters, can also have higher levels of EPA and DHA. In a 4-ounce cooked portion of trout there are approximately 1,058 milligrams (mg) of EPA and DHA. Other more popular freshwater fish species do have lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids ranging from 101 mg per 4-ounce portion in channel catfish to 153 mg per 4-ounce cooked portion in tilapia. The EPA and DHA content in 4-ounce portions of popular saltwater fish range from greater than 1,800 mg in Atlantic and King salmon, 977 mg in canned albacore (white) tuna, and 181 mg in cod.

Health organizations worldwide recommend an average intake of 250 mg per day of EPA and DHA to maximize health benefits, and the American Heart Association recommends 1000 mg per day EPA and DHA for people with cardiovascular disease. Overall, saltwater species contain higher levels of these heart healthy omega-3 fatty acids, and it’s always important to include a variety of seafood in the diet for the most nutritional benefits.

Is imported seafood safe?

All imported seafood is subject to the same regulations and safety measures used for seafood produced in the United States. All imported seafood products are subject to monitoring by both federal and state authorities, plus proper handling and care after arrival. Monitoring programs have detected certain potential problems and rejected products from entering markets in the United States. The recent (Dec 2010) ‘Food Safety Modernization Act’ includes additional federal and state based programs to advance safety measures for all imported foods.

The majority of seafood consumed in the United States is imported. These imports are necessary to help meet the increasing demands. The growing amount of seafood imports is attracting increasing regulatory attention. This is why there is occasional publicity about efforts to detect and prevent problems. The source of the seafood should be available upon purchase.

Resources

Links and references

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Web resources

Seafood Nutrition Partnership 

Fish, Mercury, and Nutrition: The Net Effects

Seafood for the Future

Seafood at its Best

CFOOD Science of Fisheries Sustainability

Safe and Nutritious Seafood in Virginia
Virginia Cooperative Extension Consumer Brochure

Seafood Savvy: A Consumer’s Guide to Seafood Nutrition, Safety, Handling and Preparation
Cornell University & NY Sea Grant Booklet

Handling Your Catch: A Guide for Saltwater Anglers
This 48 page booklet by NY Sea Grant and Cornell University Seafood Technology Specialist Ken Gall describes how to handle, store, transport and prepare saltwater fish to maximize quality and safety. It includes numerous illustrations and examples.

SafeOysters.org, a gateway to Vibrio vulnificus information
University of Georgia Marine Extension Service and California Sea Grant Extension Program

Fresh and Frozen Seafood: Selecting and Serving it Safety
Food and Drug Administration Consumer Brochure

Safe and Nutritious Seafood in Virginia
Virginia Cooperative Extension Consumer Brochure

Seafood Savvy: A Consumer’s Guide to Seafood Nutrition, Safety, Handling and Preparation
Cornell University & NY Sea Grant Booklet

Information from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on the health effects of PCBs
Epidemiology of Seafood-Associated Infections in the U.S. Iwamoto, M., Ayers, T., Mahon, B.E. and D. Swerdlow, Centers for Disease Control. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, April 2010, 399-411. This peer reviewed journal article authored by scientists from the Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch of the CDC summarizes and analyzes the epidemiology of seafood associated illnesses in the U.S. from 1973 to 2006. Included is information on bacterial and viral pathogens and parasites associated with seafood. To see the abstract for this publication click here.

A-Z Index for Foodborne, Bacteria, and Mycotic Diseases
Centers for Disease Control

Food Poisoning
FoodSafety.gov Contains a list and links to bacteria and viruses most frequently associated with food poisoning cases in the US

FightBAC.org
Administered by the Partnership for Food Safety Education (PFSE), FightBAC is a not-for-profit organization that unites industry associations, professional societies in food science, nutrition and health, consumer groups, and the U.S. government to educate the public about safe food handling.

Microbiological and Parasitic Exposure and Health Effects
Seafood Safety, Committee on Evaluation of the Safety of Fishery Products, Farid E. Ahmed, Editor, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press (1991)

Seafood Supply and Commercial Fisheries Reference
National Marine Fisheries Service, 2017

References on Recreationally Caught Fish and Shellfish

Seafood Safety – National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine Report, 1991.

This comprehensive report summarizes seafood safety issues related to microbial risks, natural toxins and chemical contaminants in both commercial and recreationally caught seafood. The report was produced by a multidisciplinary committee of 13 scientists convened under the auspices of the Academy’s Food and Nutrition Board. The committee consisted of experts in the fields of public health, marine pathology, marine toxicology, food science and technology, food microbiology, biostatistics, seafood safety policy and regulations, epidemiology, risk assessment, industry structure, and public interest. The committee was asked to evaluate the health effects of marine and freshwater fishery products (fresh or frozen) available to the consumer from commercial and recreational sources, and to identify options for improvement of the current system of seafood surveillance and control. To view this report click here. 

U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Food borne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (Bad Bug Book)

This FDA Handbook provides information on the illnesses caused by fish and shellfish toxins including Scombrotoxin, Ciguatera, Tetrodotoxin (puffer toxin), and the Shellfish Toxins that cause Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), Amnesiac Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) and Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP). Included is information on each of these toxins, food vehicles, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, and high risk groups. To see this resource click here. 

October 18, 2006, Fish Intake, Contaminants, and Human Health: Evaluating the risks and the benefits, Clinical Review, Journal of the American Medical Association, 296: 1885-1899

Abstract (excerpts)

Context: Fish (finfish or shellfish) may have health benefits and also contain contaminants, resulting in confusion over the role of fish consumption in a healthy diet.

Evidence Acquisition: We searched MEDLINE, governmental reports, and meta-analyses, supplemented by hand reviews of references and direct investigator contacts, to identify reports published through April 2006 evaluating (1) intake of fish or fish oil and cardiovascular risk, (2) effects of methylmercury and fish oil on early neurodevelopment, (3) risks of methylmercury for cardiovascular and neurologic outcomes in adults, and (4) health risks of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish.

Evidence Synthesis: Levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish are low, and potential carcinogenic and other effects are outweighed by potential benefits of fish intake and should have little impact on choices or consumption of seafood (women of childbearing age should consult regional advisories for locally caught freshwater fish).

Conclusions: For major health outcomes among adults, based on both the strength of the evidence and the potential magnitudes of effect, the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks.
For full abstract click here.

Scientific publications

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Benefits & Risks

This section contains information and links to key scientific journal articles and government and health organization reports on risks and benefits of seafood consumption. These resources are designed to give an in-depth review of the subject.

Reviews of Risks-Benefits of Seafood Consumption

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization Expert Consultations: Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption. 2010. The purpose of the FAO/WHO Expert Consultation was to provide a framework for assessing the net health benefits or risks of fish consumption that would assist governments to prepare advice for their own populations. This is the Executive Summary of the report and draws the general conclusion that benefits from fish consumption outweigh the risks for all populations. Click here to download.


Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Lefevre M, Toner CD, Colombo J, Cunnane SC, Holden JM, Klurfeld DM, Morris MC and Whelan J. 2009. Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Journal of Nutrition 139(4):804S-819. This is a result of a workshop held be the Technical Committee on Dietary Lipids of the International Life Sciences Institute North America to consider whether the body of evidence specific to the major chronic diseases in the United States—coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer, and cognitive decline—had evolved sufficiently to justify reconsideration of DRI for EPA+DHA. Click here to download.

Cohort Studies

Whelton SP, He J, Whelton PK and Muntner P. 2004. Meta-analysis of observational studies on fish intake and coronary heart disease. American Journal of Cardiology 93(9):1119-1123. Some 19 observational studies in which there was a group that consumed fish on a regular basis and a comparison group that consumed little or no fish were reviewed. Findings suggest that fish consumption may be an important component of lifestyle modification for the prevention of coronary heart disease. To view this article click here.

Risk-Benefit Models

Ponce RA, Bartell SM, Wong EY, LaFlamme D, Carrington C, Lee RC, Patrick DL, Faustman EM and Bolger M. 2000. Use of Quality-adjusted life year weights with dose-response models for public health decisions: A case study of the risks and benefits of fish consumption. Risk Analysis 20(4):529-542. One of the first papers using QALY (Quality Adjusted Life Year) for developing a quantitative model for studying the risks and benefits of seafood consumption. Click here to download.

Cohen JT, Bellinger DC, Connor WE, Kris-Etherton PM, Lawrence RS, Savitz DA, Shaywitz BA, Teutsch SM and Gray GM. 2005. A quantitaive risk-benefit analysis of changes in population fish consumption. Amerericam Journal of Preventative Medicine 29(4):325-334. One in a series of studies that explores the risk-benefits of seafood consumption in various populations with end-points being coronary heart disease and, neurodevelopment. Authors use unique quantitative methods and use of QALYs to determine the overall impacts of seafood consumption. To view this article click here.

Other Studies of Interest

Shimshack JP and Ward MB. 2010. Mercury advisories and household health trade-offs. Journal of Health Economics 29(5):674-685. The authors discuss how health advisories may have unintended consequences for reducing overall seafood consumption. To view this article click here.

Oken E, Radesky JS, Wright RO, Bellinger DC, Amarasiriwardena CJ, Kleinman KP, Hu H and Gillman MW. 2008b. Maternal fish intake during pregnancy, blood mercury levels, and child cognition at age 3 years in a US cohort. American Journal of Epidemiology 167(10):1171-1181. One of the few studies looking at the balance of contaminant risk and nutritional benefit from maternal prenatal fish consumption for child cognitive development in the U.S. Click here to download.

Myers GJ, Davidson PW, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Palumbo D, Cernichiari E, Sloane-Reeves J, Wilding GE, Kost J, Huang LS and Clarkson TW. 2003. Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study. Lancet. 361(9370):1686-1692. This long-term study in the Seychelles Islands shows no correlations of mercury in the diet with child neurological development. To view this article click here.

Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF, Debes F, Araki S, Yokoyama K, Murata K, Sorensen N, Dahl R and Jorgensen PJ. 1997. Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 19(6):417-428. This long-term study in the Faroe Islands shows a correlation of mercury in the diet and cognitive deficits. To view this article click here.

Man-made Pollutants

October 18, 2006, Fish Intake, Contaminants, and Human Health: Evaluating the risks and the benefits, Clinical Review, Journal of the American Medical Association, 296: 1885-1899

Abstract (excerpts)

Context Fish (finfish or shellfish) may have health benefits and also contain contaminants, resulting in confusion over the role of fish consumption in a healthy diet.

Evidence Acquisition  We searched MEDLINE, governmental reports, and meta-analyses, supplemented by hand reviews of references and direct investigator contacts, to identify reports published through April 2006 evaluating (1) intake of fish or fish oil and cardiovascular risk, (2) effects of methylmercury and fish oil on early neurodevelopment, (3) risks of methylmercury for cardiovascular and neurologic outcomes in adults, and (4) health risks of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish.

Evidence Synthesis  Levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish are low, and potential carcinogenic and other effects are outweighed by potential benefits of fish intake and should have little impact on choices or consumption of seafood (women of childbearing age should consult regional advisories for locally caught freshwater fish).

Conclusions  For major health outcomes among adults, based on both the strength of the evidence and the potential magnitudes of effect, the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks.

Click for full abstract

Code of Federal Regulations– 21 CFR 109.30– Tolerances for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s) 

Daniels JL, Longnecker MP, Klebanoff MA, Gray KA, Brock JW, Zhou H, Chen Z & Needham LL. 2003. Prenatal exposure to low-level polychlorinated biphenyls in relation to mental and motor development at 8 months. Am. J. Epidemiol. 157:485-492.

Grandjean P, Weihe P, Burse VW, Needham LL, Storr-Hansen E, Heinzow B, Debes F, Murata K, Simonsen H, Ellefsen P, Budtz-Jørgensen E, Keiding N & White RF. 2001. Neurobehavioral deficits associated with PCB in 7-year-old children prenatally exposed to seafood neurotoxicants. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 23:305-317.

Mercury in Seafood

Effects of prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption on neurodevelopment: outcomes at 66 months of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study. 1998. Davidson et al. Journal of American Medical Association, 280 (8): 701-7.

A total of 711 children were studied over 66 months for cognitive development in The Republic of Seychelles, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean where 85% of the population consumes ocean fish daily. No adverse outcomes at 66 months were associated with either prenatal or postnatal MeHg exposure. In the population studied, consumption of a diet high in ocean fish appears to pose no threat to developmental outcomes through 66 months of age.Click here to see this article.

Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. 1997. Granjean et al. Neurotoxicology Tetratology 19 (6): 417-28

A total of 917 children were studied in the Faroe Islands and underwent detailed neurobehavioral examination at seven years of age. Clinical examination and neurophysiological testing did not reveal any clear-cut mercury-related abnormalities. However, mercury-related neuropsychological dysfunctions were found in the domains of language, attention, and memory, and to a lesser extent in visuospatial and motor functions. Click here to see this article.

Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. 2006. Mozafarian, D. and Rimm, E. Journal of American Medical Association. 296 (15): 1885-99.

Authors undertook a major review of seafood consumption studies and found that even modest consumption of fish reduced the coronary risks by 36%. For major health outcomes among adults, based on both the strength of the evidence and the potential magnitudes of effect, the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks. Click here to see this article.

Decline in Fish Consumption Among Pregnant Women After a National Mercury Advisory. 2003. Emily Oken, MD, Ken P. Kleinman, ScD, Wendy E. Berland, MPH, Steven R. Simon, MD, MPH, Janet W. Rich-Edwards, ScD, and Matthew W. Gillman, MD, SM. Obstet Gynecol. 102(2): 346–351.

Authors observed a diminished consumption of dark meat fish, canned tuna, and white meat fish after the national mercury advisory. These decreases resulted in a reduction in total fish consumption of approximately 1.4 servings per month after dissemination of federal recommendations. Because these fish may confer nutritional benefits to mother and infant, public health implications of these changes remain unclear. Click here to see this article.

Microbes and Food Borne Illness

Epidemiology of Seafood–Associated Infections in the U.S.

Clinical Microbiology Reviews, April 2010, 399–411. Iwamoto, M., Ayers, T., Mahon, B.E. and D. Swerdlow. This peer reviewed journal article authored by scientists from the Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch of the CDC summarizes and analyzes the epidemiology of seafood associated illnesses in the U.S. from 1973 to 2006. Included is information on bacterial and viral pathogens and parasites associated with seafood. To see the abstract for this publication click here.

Outbreak Surveillance Data: Reported Foodborne Disease Outbreaks and Illnesses by Etiology and Food Commodities, United States – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

This Website contains the annual summaries of US foodborne disease outbreaks and illnesses by etiology and food commodities. The latest report is for 2007 (posted August 2010). Summaries from previous years are also available. A database tool is available to search for specific combinations for year, state, location where illness occurred and etiology. To visit this site click here.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) –Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Weekly publication from CDC with reports on various diseases and illnesses including foodborne illness. Website includes weekly reports, surveillance summaries, supplements and recommendations from CDC and other health organizations. To view the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) click here.

Infections related to the ingestion of seafood Part I: Viral and bacterial infections.

The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2004 Apr;4(4):201–12. Butt AA, Aldridge KE, Sanders CV. Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, the VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, and the Center for Health Equity Research and Promotion, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA. butta@msx.dept–med.pitt.edu The first part of this two–part review summarizes the general incidence of seafood–related infections and discusses the common viral and bacterial causes of these infections. For each agent, the microbiology, epidemiology, mode of transmission, and treatment are discussed. To view the summary of this article click here.

Assessment and Management of Seafood Safety and Quality by H. H. Huss, L. Ababouch and L. Gram, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 444. Rome. 2003.

This paper compiles the state of knowledge on fish safety and quality with the view to provide a succinct yet comprehensive resource book to risk and fish quality managers. After an introduction about world fish production and consumption and the developments in safety and quality systems, it provides a detailed review of the hazards causing public health concerns in fish and fish products. It devotes several Chapters to risk mitigation and management tools, with a detailed description of the requirements for the implementation of Good Hygienic and Manufacturing Practices (GHP/GMP), of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and of the monitoring programs to control biotoxins, pathogenic bacteria and viruses and chemical pollutants. Chapters on the use of microbiological criteria, the use of the HACCP approach to target quality aspects other than safety matters, predictive microbiology, traceability and examples of food safety objectives complete the document.
To view this resource click here.

Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guidance – Food and Drug Administration.

The primary purpose of this guidance is to assist processors of fish and fishery products in the development of their HACCP plans. Processors of fish and fishery products will find information in this guidance that will help them identify hazards that are associated with their products, and help them formulate control strategies.

Another purpose of this guidance is to help consumers and the public generally to understand commercial seafood safety in terms of hazards and their controls. This guidance does not specifically address safe handling practices by consumers or by retail establishments, although many of the concepts contained in this guidance are applicable to both. This guidance is also intended to serve as a tool to be used by federal and State regulatory officials in the evaluation of HACCP plans for fish and fishery products. describes the potential hazard of pathogens and methods of its control in commercially processed seafood. To view this guidance document click here. 

Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (The Bad Bug Book) – Food and Drug Administration.

This handbook provides basic facts regarding foodborne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins. It brings together in one place information from the Food & Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, the USDA Food Safety Inspection Service, and the National Institutes of Health. To view this handbook click here.

FoodNet Surveillance – Pathogens and Conditions – Centers for Disease Control.

This Website provides general information, technical information and a link to the Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch of CDC where published information can be retrieved on foodborne illness and important pathogens including: Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria, Vibrio and Yersinia. To visit this CDC Website click here.

Seafood Safety – National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine Report, 1991.

This comprehensive report summarizes seafood safety issues related to microbial risks, natural toxins and chemical contaminants in both commercial and recreationally caught seafood. The report was produced by a multidisciplinary committee of 13 scientists convened under the auspices of the Academy’s Food and Nutrition Board. The committee consisted of experts in the fields of public health, marine pathology, marine toxicology, food science and technology, food microbiology, biostatistics, seafood safety policy and regulations, epidemiology, risk assessment, industry structure, and public interest. The committee was asked to evaluate the health effects of marine and freshwater fishery products (fresh or frozen) available to the consumer from commercial and recreational sources, and to identify options for improvement of the current system of seafood surveillance and control. View this here..

Parasites

Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks (Chapter 4: Health Risks Associated with Seafood Consumption), Eds. M. C. Nesheim and A. l. Yaktine (Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, 2007), “Seafoodborne parasitic infections are not common in the United States.” Thousands of parasites exist worldwide, but only about 100 species are known to infect people through consumption of contaminated food or water. There are two types of parasites that can infect people through food or water: parasitic worms and protozoa. Parasitic worms include roundworms (nematodes), tapeworms (cestodes) and flukes (trematodes). These worms vary in size from barely visible to several feet in length. Protozoa are single-cell animals, and cannot be seen without a microscope.

CDC: A-Z Index of Parasitic Diseases

CDC: National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Brone and Enteric Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases, DPDx, Laboratory Identification of Parasites of Public Health Concern. DPDx is a web site developed and maintained by CDC’s Division of Parasitic Diseases with the goal to strengthening diagnosis of parasitic diseases globally. The web site includes description of parasites and parasitic diseases, image library, diagnostic procedures, and diagnostic assistance. Click here for link.

The US Food and Drug Administration’s “BAM” (Bacteriological Analytical Manual) has a chapter on Parasitic Animals in Foods which discusses techniques for examining foods for the presence of parasites. An in-depth discussion of the candling method with finfish and molluscs is described. Click here for link.

The US Food and Drug Administration’s “Bad Bug Book” (Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook) includes basic facts on foodborne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins. The material is collected from the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, the USDA Food Safety Inspection Service, and the National Institutes of Health.

The chapter on Potential Hazards in Cold-Smoked Fish: Parasites in the US Food and Drug Administration scientific publication on “Safe Practices for Food Processes” discusses the presence of parasites in raw, frozen and smoked fish, and the effects of processing steps (salting, cold-smoking, freezing, and irridation) used in controlling parasites. Click here for link.

“Fish Parasites and Human Health, Epidemiology of Human Helminthic Infections” includes the life cycles of common parasites in freshwater and marine fishes, transmission, and prevention. Click here for link.

Raw Molluscan Shellfish

National Shellfish Sanitation Program: Guide for the Control of Molluscan Shellfish 2007, Section III. Public Health Reasons and Explanations.

This section of the latest version of the NSSP Molluscan Shellfish Control Manual provides a public health explanation and rationale for each of the required components of this national food safety control program. A description and rationale for requirements of state shellfish control authorities, bacteriological standards for monitoring water quality and classifying harvest waters, requirements for dealers and processors, and for depuration are included. To view this section and/or the entire 2007 NSSP Control Manual click here.

SafeOysters.org – Internet Resources and Reference for healthcare Providers on Oysters and Vibrio vulnificus.

This Website developed by seafood specialists at the Universities of Georgia and California-Davis contains a comprehensive list of Internet resources and published journal references on oysters with an emphasis on the pathogen Vibrio vulnificus. Internet resources include those available from the American Medical Association, Centers for Disease Control, Food and Drug Administration, and the Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference. References focus on public health, mode of infection, high risk individuals, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. To view this Internet resource click here.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Food borne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (Bad Bug Book)

This FDA Handbook provides information on the illnesses caused by bacterial and viral agents that could be associated with raw molluscan shellfish includingVibrio cholera, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus, Salmonella, E. coli, Shigella, and enteric viruses like Hepatitis A and the Norwalk virus group. Included is information on each of these organisms, food vehicles, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, and high risk groups. To see this resource click here. 

Microbial Contamination of Shellfish: Prevalence, Risk to Human Health, and Control Strategies, R. J. Wittman and G. J. Flick. Annual Review of Public Health, 1995, 16:123-40.

Abstract: There has been significant concern in recent times about the safety of molluscan shellfish for human consumption. Despite extensive efforts to assure a safe supply of molluscan shellfish, the number of cases of disease and death are still great enough to cause concern among the public. The number of cases of illness and death associated with the ingestion of shellfish falls in the lower end of the range of other similar microbial pathogen-related food borne disease. Disease and deaths due to viruses and naturally occurring bacteria are now of greatest concern because they are the most often cited causative agents. The greatest risk of disease or death due to shellfish consumption is among the population with underlying health conditions who choose to consume raw shellfish. Control strategies to limit shellfish-borne disease should focus upon disease and death caused by viruses and naturally occurring bacteria among at-risk populations. To view this article click here.

Ready-to-Eat Seafood Products

U.S. Centers for Disease Control – Preliminary FoodNet Data on the Incidence of Infection with Pathogens Transmitted Commonly Through Food – 10 States, 2009, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 59(14), April 16, 2010.

The Food borne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) of CDC’s Emerging Infections Program conducts active, population-based surveillance in 10 U.S. states for all laboratory-confirmed infections with select enteric pathogens transmitted commonly through food (1). This report describes preliminary surveillance data for 2009 and trends in incidence since 1996. To view this report click here.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Food borne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook (Bad Bug Book – Listeria monocytogenes)

This FDA Handbook provides information on the illness caused by L. monocytogenes, listeriosis. Included is information on the organism, food vehicles, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, and high risk groups. To see this resource click here.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration and USDA/Food Safety and Inspection Service – Quantitative Assessment of Relative Risk to Public Health from Food borne Listeria monocytogenes Among Selected Categories of Ready-to-Eat Foods, September 2003.

The United States Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (DHHS/FDA/CFSAN) conducted this risk assessment in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA/FSIS) and in consultation with the DHHS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The purpose of the assessment is to examine systematically the available scientific data and information and to estimate the relative risks of serious illness and death associated with consumption of different types of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods that may be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes. To see a copy of the full report click here.

Seafood & Nutrition

These resources are for consumers, patients, and health professionals who are interested in reviewing the results of studies published in scientific or medical journals or by government agencies or health organizations. They are presented at this site in the format of abstracts or other summaries of scientific papers or government reports with a link to the original source.

 

2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans

The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines provides five overarching Guidelines that encourage healthy eating patterns, recognize that individuals will need to make shifts in their food and beverage choices to achieve a healthy pattern, and acknowledge that all segments of our society have a role to play in supporting healthy choices. These Guidelines also embody the idea that a healthy eating pattern is not a rigid prescription, but rather, an adaptable framework in which individuals can enjoy foods that meet their personal, cultural, and traditional preferences and fit within their budget. Several examples of healthy eating patterns that translate and integrate the recommendations in overall healthy ways to eat are provided.

Chapter 4 of the report summarizes Foods and Nutrients to Increase, which includes information on their recommendations for seafood consumption and average EPA and DHA intakes for the general population and special groups. To view this report click here.

PUFA (Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid) Newsletter

This newsletter is designed for health professionals and provides detailed summaries of recent scientific studies on PUFAs, especially omega-3s and their derivatives, with full citations and links to related articles. This publication also includes occasional guest articles by prominent scientists in the field. The PUFA Newsletter and Fats of Life are written by nutrition scientist Joyce A. Nettleton, D.Sc., with input from a Scientific Advisory Board below and other science and medical experts as needed. Each issue is reviewed by the board members before posting. The PUFA Newsletter is sponsored solely by DSM Nutritional Products, Inc., headquartered in Kaiseraugst, Switzerland. To view the latest issue of the PUFA Newsletter click here:

JADA Article, July 2010, Intake of Fish and n-3 Fatty Acids and Future Risk of Metabolic Syndrome

Intake of Fish and n-3 Fatty Acids and Future Risk of Metabolic Syndrome, Inkyung Baik, PhD, Robert D. Abbott, PhD, J. David Curb, MD, PhD, Chol Shin, MD, PhD. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, Vol. 110, 7, July 2010, p.1018-1026.

Abstract 

Background: Whether or not fish and n-3 fatty acid intake is associated with the metabolic syndrome risk has not been carefully evaluated. This study investigated the effect of fish and n-3 fatty acid intake on the incidence of metabolic syndrome and on the individual risk factors for the syndrome.

Methods: A population-based prospective cohort study included 3,504 male and female Koreans aged 40 to 69 years from the Korean Genome Epidemiology Study. At the beginning of follow-up, all individuals were free of metabolic syndrome and known cardiovascular disease. Each participant completed a food frequency questionnaire. Incident cases of metabolic syndrome were identified by biennial health examinations during a follow-up period between April 17, 2003, and November 17, 2006. Pooled logistic regression analysis was applied to obtain an odds ratio (OR) of metabolic syndrome with its 95% confidence interval (CI) for fish or n-3 fatty acid intake.

Results: After controlling for potential cardiovascular risk factors, multivariate OR for metabolic syndrome was 0.43 (95% CI 0.23 to 0.83) for men who ate fish daily when compared with those eating fish less than once a week. Similarly, metabolic syndrome risk was halved for men in the top decile of n-3 fatty acid intake when compared with those in the bottom decile (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.99). In particular, fish intake was significantly associated with triglyceride level and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level among the metabolic syndrome components. For women, apparent associations were not observed between fish intake or n-3 fatty acid intake and metabolic syndrome risk.

Conclusions: In a prospective study, high consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids was significantly associated with a lower risk of metabolic syndrome among men, but not among women. Whether or not encouraging fish intake can help prevent the development of metabolic syndrome warrants further studies. Click here to view this article.

January 20, 2010, Association of Marine Omega-3 Fatty Acid Levels With Telomeric Aging in Patients With Coronary Heart Disease, Journal of the American Medical Association Abstract

Inkyung Baik, PhD, Robert D. Abbott, PhD, J. David Curb, MD, PhD, Chol Shin, MD, PhD

Context: Increased dietary intake of marine omega-3 fatty acids is associated with prolonged survival in patients with coronary heart disease. However, the mechanisms underlying this protective effect are poorly understood.

Objective: To investigate the association of omega-3 fatty acid blood levels with temporal changes in telomere length, an emerging marker of biological age.

Conclusion: Among this cohort of patients with coronary artery disease, there was an inverse relationship between baseline blood levels of marine omega-3 fatty acids and the rate of telomere shortening over 5 years.

To view this abstract from the Journal of the American Medical Association click here:

2002, American Heart Association Scientific Statement on Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease, Circulation 2002; 106:2747

Statement Summary: Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown in epidemiological and clinical trials to reduce the incidence of CVD. Large-scale epidemiological studies suggest that individuals at risk for CHD benefit from the consumption of plant- and marine-derived omega-3 fatty acids, although the ideal intakes presently are unclear. Evidence from prospective secondary prevention studies suggests that EPA+DHA supplementation ranging from 0.5 to 1.8 g/d (either as fatty fish or supplements) significantly reduces subsequent cardiac and all-cause mortality. For -linolenic acid, total intakes of 1.5 to 3 g/d seem to be beneficial.

Collectively, these data are supportive of the recommendation made by the AHA Dietary Guidelines to include at least two servings of fish per week (particularly fatty fish). In addition, the data support inclusion of vegetable oils (eg, soybean, canola, walnut, flaxseed) and food sources (eg, walnuts, flaxseeds) high in -linolenic acid in a healthy diet for the general population. The fish recommendation must be balanced with concerns about environmental pollutants, in particular PCB and methylmercury, described in state and federal advisories. Consumption of a variety of fish is recommended to minimize any potentially adverse effects due to environmental pollutants and, at the same time, achieve desired CVD health outcomes.

To view this American Heart Association Scientific Statement click here.

Current Health Research on Seafood, NOAA Fish Watch Website

This site contains a selected summary of current research and position papers on seafood and health. Studies featured at the site include research on omega-3 fatty acids in seafood and some seafood safety risks. The site was developed and published by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in cooperation with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) n and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

To visit this site click here.

Seafood Handling & Storage

NACMCF. 2008. Response to the questions posed by the Food and Drug Administration and the National Marine Fisheries Service Regarding Determination of Cooking Parameters for Safe Seafood for Consumers. Journal of Food Protection, 2008, 71(6):1287-1308.

While consumers are advised to cook seafood to an internal temperature of 145°F for 15 seconds or until flaky, opaque and no longer translucent, there are questions regarding this recommendation. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) was asked to address many questions related to the safe handling of seafood including cooking requirements and internal temperatures, impact of different preparation methods, and pathogens of concern. While the committee found that seafood safety was enhanced with current recommendations for handling, cooking, serving and storing, the conclusions regarding many of the cooking parameters that have been recommended over the years were determined to have little scientific basis.

Some conclusions in the NACMCF report were:

  • Cooking methods for seafood products differ and often not based on scientific data.
  • There are no easy, practical measurements or indicators for consumers to objectively determine sufficient cooking to ensure safety
  • Cookbook recommendations regarding cooking times per side do not take into account specie differences or size/thickness of fillets
  • Microwave heating is frequently found to be non uniform and instructions have been based on time and not internal temperatures
  • There is a lack of thermal inactivation data for relevant pathogens due to the variety of seafood and methods of cooking.
  • Cooking processes may reduce microbial risks, but the extent of the risk reduction may differ with type of seafood, cooking method and level of pathogens
  • Some cooking methods do not provide protection. For example, lightly cooking or steaming does not destroy human enteric viruses
  • There is no single temperature that will ensure the safety of all cooked fishery products and result in an acceptable product.

Some key recommendations in the NACMCF report are:

  • Review of epidemiological data to determine the role of seafood in foodborne illness.
  • Thermal inactivation kinetics must be determined on pertinent pathogens of interest for specific seafood types and cooking methods
  • In absence of information, current cooking guidance, as provided by the FDA Food Code, should be followed–even with its uncertainties. These include different cooking temperatures for comminuted, stuffed and raw fish. These recommendations are all predicated on seafood that has been properly handled prior to cooking and consumed shortly after preparation.
  • At-risk populations should avoid raw and undercooked seafood products
  • Consumer education is critical for updated cooking times and temperatures, and the importance of sanitary practices, temperature control and proper handling.

The full article can be found here.

NACMCF. 2005. Considerations for establishing safety-based consume-by date labels for refrigerated, ready to eat foods. Journal of Food Protection, 68(8):1761-1775.

Listeria monocytogenes has been the pathogenic organism of most concern in refrigerated, ready-to-eat products found in all commodities (See Listeria risk assessment links below). Ready-to-eat seafood is no exception and consumers purchase of variety of these seafood products. This could include salads, spreads and hot/cold smoked products. NACMCF provided expertise regarding establishing scientific parameters for safety-based use-by dates for refrigerated ready-to-eat (RTE) foods to help reduce the risk of foodborne illness. However, with the diversity and number and complexity of food products, practical implementation of safety-based date labels will be difficult. Educational efforts to consumers regarding the importance of temperature control (adequate refrigeration) would lead to a reduction in foodborne illness.

To view this article click here.

Listeria Risk Assessment – U.S. Food and Drug Administration and USDA/Food Safety and Inspection Service – Quantitative Assessment of Relative Risk to Public Health from Food borne Listeria monocytogenes Among Selected Categories of Ready-to-Eat Foods, September 2003.

The United States Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (DHHS/FDA/CFSAN) conducted this risk assessment in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA/FSIS) and in consultation with the DHHS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The purpose of the assessment is to examine systematically the available scientific data and information and to estimate the relative risks of serious illness and death associated with consumption of different types of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods that may be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes.

To view this report click here.

Seafood Safety

Surveillance for Foodborne-Disease Outbreaks—United States, 1998—2002, Michael Lynch, MD, John Painter, DVM, Rachel Woodruff, MPH, Christopher Braden, MD. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, November 10, 2006, 55(SS10), 1-34.

Since 1973, CDC has maintained a collaborative surveillance program for collection and periodic reporting of data on the occurrence and causes of foodborne-disease outbreaks (FBDOs) in the United States. During 1998–2002, a total of 6,647 outbreaks of foodborne disease were reported. These outbreaks caused a reported 128,370 persons to become ill. Among 2,167 (33%) outbreaks for which the etiology was determined, bacterial pathogens caused the largest percentage of outbreaks (55%) and the largest percentage of cases (55%). Among bacterial pathogens, Salmonella serotype Enteritidis accounted for the largest number of outbreaks and outbreak-related cases; Listeria monocytogenes accounted for the majority of deaths of any pathogen. Viral pathogens, predominantly norovirus, caused 33% of outbreaks and 41% of cases; the proportion of outbreaks attributed to viral agents increased from 16% in 1998 to 42% in 2002. Chemical agents caused 10% of outbreaks and 2% of cases, and parasites caused 1% of outbreaks and 1% of cases. Outbreaks during this period are characterized by type of food (including seafood and other major food commodities), location of outbreak, and causative agent. To view this report click here.

Assessment and Management of Seafood Safety and Quality, Huss, H.H; Ababouch, L; Gram, L., FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 444, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2003.

Abstract: This paper compiles the state of knowledge on fish safety and quality with the view to provide a succinct yet comprehensive resource book to risk and fish quality managers. After an introduction about world fish production and consumption and the developments in safety and quality systems, it provides a detailed review of the hazards causing public health concerns in fish and fish products. It devotes several Chapters to risk mitigation and management tools, with a detailed description of the requirements for the implementation of Good Hygienic and Manufacturing Practices (GHP/GMP), of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and of the monitoring programmes to control biotoxins, pathogenic bacteria and viruses and chemical pollutants. Chapters on the use of microbiological criteria, the use of the HACCP approach to target quality aspects other than safety matters, predictive microbiology, traceability and examples of food safety objectives complete the document. To view this document click here.

Seafood Safety – National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine Report, 1991.

This comprehensive report summarizes seafood safety issues related to microbial risks, natural toxins and chemical contaminants in both commercial and recreationally caught seafood. The report was produced by a multidisciplinary committee of 13 scientists convened under the auspices of the Academy’s Food and Nutrition Board. The committee consisted of experts in the fields of public health, marine pathology, marine toxicology, food science and technology, food microbiology, biostatistics, seafood safety policy and regulations, epidemiology, risk assessment, industry structure, and public interest. The committee was asked to evaluate the health effects of marine and freshwater fishery products (fresh or frozen) available to the consumer from commercial and recreational sources, and to identify options for improvement of the current system of seafood surveillance and control. To view this report click here.

Toxins

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report – Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illnesses: A Primer for Physicians and Other healthcare Professionals, April 16, 2004 / 53(RR04);1-33.

A publication produced collaboratively by the American Medical Association, American Nurses Association–American Nurses Foundation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration Food Safety and Inspection Service, US Department of Agriculture. This publication covers all foodborne illness including those associated with marine toxins. Charts provide information on: incubation period, signs and symptoms, duration of illness, associated foods, laboratory testing and treatment. To view this resource click here.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Marine Biotoxins, FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 80, Rome, 2004.

Foreword:

FAO published this Food and Nutrition Paper on Marine Biotoxins in an effort to support the exchange of scientific information on an important subject of concern for food safety worldwide. Marine biotoxins represent a significant and expanding threat to human health in many parts of the world. The impact is visible in terms of human poisoning or even death following the consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish, as well as mass killings of fish and shellfish, and the death of marine animals and birds. This paper provides an extensive review of different aspects of five shellfish poisoning syndromes (paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, neurologic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning), as well as one fish poisoning syndrome (ciguatera fish poisoning). Various aspects of these poisoning syndromes are discussed in detail including the causative toxins produced by marine organisms, chemical structures and analytical methods of the toxins, habitat and occurrence of the toxin producing organisms, case studies and existing regulations. Based on this analysis, risk assessments are carried out for each of these different toxins, and recommendations elaborated to better manage these risks in order to reduce the harmful effect of these toxins on public health. Work undertaken during this study has underlined the difficulties of performing a scientific-based risk assessment given the lack of data on the toxicology and exposure of diverse marine toxins. The allowance levels currently valid for phycotoxins are generally based on data derived from poisoning incidents in people. However, these data are seldom accurate and complete, and usually restricted to acute toxicity. Therefore, increased attention must be paid to expanding and improving initiatives to monitor, detect and share information on marine biotoxins in the future in order to reduce the public health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated shellfish and fish.
To view this resource click here.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Marine Toxins.

This Website from the CDC National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases (NCZVED) contains information on common marine toxins in a Question & Answer format. Information includes a description of the toxin, common food vehicles, symptoms of illness and tips for prevention. To view this resource click here.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Travelers Health Yellow Book, Chapter 2 Food Poisoning from Marine Toxins.

This CDC resource provides information for travelers that describe the risks, clinical presentation, prevention and treatment for the most common marine toxins including ciguatera, scombrotoxin and shellfish poisoning. To view this resource click here.

National Shellfish Sanitation Program: Guide for the Control of Molluscan Shellfish 2007, Section III. Public Health Reasons and Explanations.

This section of the latest version of the NSSP Molluscan Shellfish Control Manual provides a public health explanation and rationale for each of the required components of this national food safety control program. A description and rationale for requirements of state shellfish control authorities, bacteriological standards for monitoring water quality and classifying harvest waters, requirements for dealers and processors, and for depuration are included. To view this section and/or the entire 2007 NSSP Control Manual click here.